GUIA DE ING TEC 2014.doc

7/26/2019 GUIA DE ING TEC 2014.doc

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Universidad Simón Bolívar Departamento de IdiomasInglés Técnico (ID- 1102)

Tecnical!nglis

"#ide$ro%esora& S#sanna T#rci!"!& '%& 20- (Dpto* de Idiomas)!-mail& spt#rci+gmail*com

CRONOGRAMA DE ACTIVIDADES T,I!ST,!& !nero-ar.o 201/

S! !3 'T!ID'S !45UI'1 Bienvenida

Unidad 1& Introd#cción al c#rso deestrategia de lect#ra& s6imming7scanning7 prediction7 in%erence7previo#s 6no8ledge7 s#%i9os

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2 Unidad 1&S#%i9os7 conectores7ad9etivos

> Unidad 2& 'rigen de la electrónica7s#s componentes7 vac##m t#:es ;diagramas7 el #so del so#ld*

/ Unidad >& onceptos :?sicos deampli%icadores7 circ#itos

integrados7preposiciones* Unidad >& De%iniciones ; conceptos

:?sicos de la electronica &anodo7catodo7triodo ; de%inición decorriente7 volta9e7 circ#itos a:ierto7cerrado *

@ Unidad /& !l origen de los circ#itosintegrados7 el transistor vs vac##mt#:es7 ; condicionales*

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Unidad & !l origen del cip7 laconstr#ccion de los componentes*C Unidad @& !l origen de la

electricidad7 las propiedadeselctricas de los sElidos7 cargaselctricas*

10 Unidad A& "losarios 7e9erciciosgramaticales ; vo. pasiva*

11 Seg#ndo parcial escrito >0=12 !ntrega de notas

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!strategias de lect#ra*******************************************************

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mailto:[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]



S#%i9os********************************************************************************d9etivosGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG***********'rigen de la electrónica***************************************************4ac##m t#:es********************************************************************Diagramas electrónicosG***GG**GGGGGGGGGG*

irc#itos integrados**********************************************************onceptos de ampli%icadores :FsicosGGGGGGG***'rigen de los circ#itos integrados**GGGGGGG*******agnetismGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG**!lectricidadGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG*,o:oticsGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG*"losariosGGGGGGGGGGG**GGGGGGGGGG!9ercicios gramaticalesGGGGGGGGGGGGGG**

!ST,T!"IS D! 5!TU,*

Las estrategias de lectura son operaciones mentales que involucran lainferencia del significado en diferentes niveles desde lo puramente textualhasta lo extratextual, es decir, desde la inferencia de palabras, frases, de tiposde relaciones semánticas hasta los significados que dependen delconocimiento de un área específica de una sociedad o cultura. Las máscomúnmente utilizada por los lectores en el idioma Inglés son

!. $ropósito de la lect#ra "ntes de leer un texto debemos de tener claroporqué lo leemos # que deseamos aprender del mismo.

$. In%erencia %onsiste en inferir el significado de las palabras o frasesdesconocidas del contexto.

&. $redicción %onsiste en predecir en base al conocimiento previo que setiene del texto.

'. S6imming ( Lectura rápida) *e utiliza para buscar la idea general deltexto.

+. Scanning & Lectura que se utiliza para buscar la informacin específica.-. omprensión glo:al del teHto s decir, se deben de utilizar primero

las estrategias que lleven a una comprensin global de un nivel alto #luego ir hacia los párrafos, las oraciones o unidades menores.

/. Identi%icación de los patrones del leng#a9e& %omprendiendo el léxico,la gramática # los conectores textuales a nivel de la oracin # del texto.

S#%i9os

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n la 0ramática del Inglés los afi1os, prefi1os # sufi1os poseen sus propiossignificados, al diferenciarlos podemos identificar la raíz de una palabra, # por ende el significado de las mismas.2or e1emplo, non electrón ic $re%i9o ,aí. S#%i9o

l a%i9o non indica negacinl s#%i9o ic indica ad1etivo3anto los sufi1os como los prefi1os permiten que una palabra pueda cambiar de

verbo a sustantivo den# 444444444 denialde ad1etivo a sustantivo happ#44444444 happinessde sustantivo a ad1etivo friend44444444 friendl;de verbo a ad1etivo create44444444 creativede ad1etivo adverbio nois#444444444noisil;de sustantivo # ad1etivo a verbo legal444444444 legali.e

S#%i9os J#e %orman adver:ios

S#%i9o rea de Signi%icado !9emplos5l# La manera como Locall#,

helpfull#,comparabl#S#%i9os J#e %orman d9etivos

5al5ar 5ic5ical

3iene la cualidad de 2olitical, ducational%ircular conomic, *pecific0rammatical

5able5ible %apáz de ser %omparable6ivisible5ous5ious

7ue posee "utonomous, rigorous2restigious

5ful %aracterizado por 8elpful, useful5less *in %areless5ish %omo %hildish5ed 7ue es, que está 9eleated5ive %ualidad de :b1ective, effective5ing %ualidad de Interesting, exciting5ent 3iene la cualidad de 6ifferent.

S#%i9os J#e %orman S#stantivos

5ance ;n estado Ignorance5ence %ualidad de Independence5er 5or

;na persona que;na cosa que

2rogrammer :perator

5action5tion

l acto de Informationxecution

5ist5#st

;na persona que 3#pist, scientist, "nal#st

5ness %ondicion de %leanliness5ion ;na accion < ;n estado %onversion

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5ing "ctividad 3eaching (como sustantivo)5ment stado, accin =easurement,

development5it# stado, cualidad lectricit#5ian ;na persona que lectrician

5ism %ondicin < stado =agnetism, humanism5dom %ondicin >reedom5ship %ondicin < stado 9elationship, friendship5ar# %ondicin, stado ?inar#

S#%i9os J#e %orman 4er:os

5ize %omputerize5ate "ctivate, calculate5f# *implif#

5en 8arden, @iden!Hercises* " continuacin se presentan los sufi1os más comunes en el idioma Inglés,completa los espacios en blanco con el sufi1o correspondiente. "l terminar laactividad, revisa en el diccionario si no estás seguro de haber escrito bien lapalabra.1* S#%i9os J#e convierten ver:os en s#stantivos.-al to arrive the arrival to den# 44444444444444444 to propose 44444444444444444

to refuse 44444444444444444 -#re to fail 44444444444444444 to press 44444444444444444 -; deliver 44444444444444444

to discover 44444444444444444 -ation to inform 44444444444444444 to combine 44444444444444444 -ment to develop 44444444444444444

to improve 44444444444444444 -ance to refer 44444444444444444

-ence to perform 44444444444444444 -sion to revise 44444444444444444 to divide 44444444444444444 -er to operate 44444444444444444 -or to @orA 44444444444444444 to paint 44444444444444444

2* S#%i9os J#e convierten ad9etivos en s#stantivos*-ness useful44444444444444444 quiet 44444444444444444

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happ#4444444444444444 -it; active 444444444444444 safe 444444444444444 -ism human 444444444444444 magnet 444444444444444

>* S#%i9os J#e convierten s#stantivos en ad9etivos*-is fool 44444444444444444 child 44444444444444444 5# dirt 44444444444444444 5l# order 44444444444444444 5al cause 44444444444444444 5ous danger 44444444444444444 poison 44444444444444444 5ar# moment 44444444444444444

5less po@er 44444444444444444 fault 44444444444444444 5ful po@er 44444444444444444 care 44444444444444444 /* S#%i9os J#e convierten ver:os en ad9etivos*-ive to select 444444444444444 to prevent 444444444444444 5ent to please 444444444444444 5ant to depend 444444444444444 5able to perish 444444444444444 5ible to sense 444444444444444

* S#%i9os J#e convierten ad9etivos en adver:ios*5l# nois# 44444444444444444 eas# 44444444444444444 quicA 44444444444444444 @* S#%i9os J#e convierten ad9etivos en adver:ios5ize computer 44444444444444444 visual 44444444444444444

J#i tienen estos lin6s para J#e paractiJ#en

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Be%ore readingEhat do #ou Ano@ about electronicsB Inside the balloons, @rite Ae# @ords or phrases to indicate @hat #ou Ano@ about it.

!5!T,'ISctivit; I*

1* Be%ore reading 7 8rite tree ideas according to te title1*NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN2*NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN>*NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN

2* Using te reading strategies 8rite te main idea o% te teHt

>* Underline in te teHt 8ords or prases related to Tecnical !nglis(!S$)D* Underline and classi%; te s#%%iHes7 according to te list given

!* omplete te cart 8it te s#%%iHes

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!lectronics

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"6G;*3IDFD3I:DID*;L"3:9

!5!T,'ISlectronics, field of engineering and applied ph#sics dealing @ith the

design and application of devices, usuall# electronic circuits, the operation of @hich depends on the flo@ of electrons for the generation, transmission,reception, and storage of information. 3he information can consist of voice or music (audio signals) in a radio receiver, a picture on a television screen, or numbers and other data in a computer. lectronic circuits provide different functions to process this information,including amplification of @eaA signals to a usable level generation of radio@aves extraction of information, such as the recover# of an audio signal from aradio @ave (demodulation) control, such as the superimposition of an audiosignal onto radio @aves (modulation) and logic operations, such as theelectronic processes taAing place in computers.!lectronic omponents lectronic circuits consist of interconnections of electronic components.%omponents are classified into t@o categoriesJactive or passive. 2assiveelements never suppl# more energ# than the# absorb active elements cansuppl# more energ# than the# absorb. 2assive components include resistors,capacitors, and inductors. %omponents considered active include batteries,generators, vacuum tubes, and transistors.4ac##m T#:es

" vacuum tube consists of an air5evacuated glass envelope that containsseveral metal electrodes. " simple, t@o5element tube (diode) consists of acathode and an anode that is connected to the positive terminal of a po@er suppl#. 3he cathodeJa small metal tube heated b# a filamentJfrees electrons,@hich migrate to the anodeJa metal c#linder around the cathode (also calledthe plate). If an alternating voltage is applied to the anode, electrons @ill onl# flo@ tothe anode during the positive half5c#cle during the negative c#cle of thealternating voltage, the anode repels the electrons, and no current passesthrough the tube. 6iodes connected in such a @a# that onl# the positive half5c#cles of an alternating current ("%) are permitted to pass are called rectifier

tubes these are used in the conversion of alternating current to direct current(6%). ?# inserting a grid, consisting of a spiral of metal @ire, bet@een thecathode and the anode and appl#ing a negative voltage to the grid, the flo@ of electrons can be controlled. Ehen the grid is negative, it repels electrons, and onl# a fraction of theelectrons emitted b# the cathode can reach the anode. *uch a tube, called atriode, can be used as an amplifier. *mall variations in voltage at the grid, suchas can be produced b# a radio or audio signal, @ill cause large variations in theflo@ of electrons from the cathode to the anode and, hence, in the circuitr#connected to the anode.

3istorical Bac6gro#nd

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3he introduction of vacuum tubes at the beginning of the $Kth centur# @asthe starting point of the rapid gro@th of modern electronics. Eith vacuum tubesthe manipulation of signals became possible, @hich could not be done @ith theearl# telegraph and telephone circuit or @ith the earl# transmitters using high5voltage sparAs to create radio @aves. >or example, @ith vacuum tubes @eaA

radio and audio signals could be amplified, and audio signals, such as music or voice, could be superimposed on radio @aves. 3he development of a largevariet# of tubes designed for specialized functions made possible the s@iftprogress of radio communication technolog# before Eorld Ear II and thedevelopment of earl# computers during and shortl# after the @ar. 3he transistor, invented in !'M, has no@ almost completel# replaced thevacuum tube in most of its applications. Incorporating an arrangement of semiconductor materials and electrical contacts, the transistor provides thesame functions as the vacuum tube but at reduced cost, @eight, and po@er consumption and @ith higher reliabilit#. *ubsequent advances in semiconductor technolog#, in part attributable to the intensit# of research associated @ith the

space5exploration effort, led to the development of the integrated circuit.Integrated circuits ma# contain hundreds of thousands of transistors on a smallpiece of material and allo@ the construction of complex electronic circuits, suchas those in microcomputers, audio and video equipment, and communicationssatellites.

ctivit; I* omplete te cart 8it te in%ormation given %rom te teHt

lectronic components Facuum tubes

ctivit; II* ,ead again te teHt and ans8er te %ollo8ing J#estions!. NEhat is electronicsB 444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4 $. N8o@ and @hen did the modern electronics startB&. NEhat happened before and after the *econd Eorld Ear related @ith thevacuum tubesB 44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 '. NEhat is a Ovacuum tubePB 44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 ctivit; III Underline te connectorsctivit; I4* Orite a s#mmar; a:o#t te teHt

Be%ore reading7 8at ;o# 6no8 a:o#t :asic ampli%ier conceptsP Disc#ss8it ;o#r classmates

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ctivit; I* 5oo6 at te diagrams and descri:e te processes in ;o#r o8n8ordsctivit; II Underline te 8ords and prases related 8it Tecnical !nglisctivit; III Orite 20 sentences #sing comparatives and s#perlatives %rompag* A

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ctivit; 1 Underline te tecnical 8ords in te previo#s reading

Basic De%initions and onceptsIntrod#ctionEelcome to the exiting @orld of electronics. ?efore @e can build an#thing @eneed to looA at a couple of things. "n#time #ou have an electrical circuit, #ouhave voltage and electricit#. Ee build circuits to control voltage and current.#rrent

%urrent is @hat flo@s through a @ire. 3hinA of it as @ater flo@ing in a river. 3hecurrent flo@s from one point to another point 1ust liAe @ater. %urrent flo@s from

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points of high voltage to points of lo@ voltage. %urrent can be sho@n in circuitsQdiagrams b# using arro@s. "n I is usuall# included beside the arro@ to indicatecurrent.

" ?

3he unit of measurement for current is the "mpere or "mp for short, andabbreviated as ". (3he name "mpere comes from =r. "mpere @ho pla#ed @ithelectricit# as a small bo# in Fermont).%ommon current are K,KK! "mps (K,KK! ") to K,+ "mps (K,+ "). *ince currentsare usuall# small, the# are usuall# given in the form of =illi "mps (abbreviatedm."). 3he milli means divided b# !KKK, so K,KK! "mps equals ! milli "mps(!m.") since ! < !KKK C K,KK! since +KK < !KKK C K,+. 4oltageFoltage indicates the po@er level of a point. Foltage is measured in volts. If @e

continue the river comparison, a point at the top of a hill @ould be at a highvoltage level and a point at the bottom of a hill @ould be at a lo@ voltage level.3hen, 1ust as @ater flo@s from a high point to a lo@ point, current flo@s from ahigh voltage to a point of lo@ voltage. If one point is at + volts and another pointis at K volts then @hen a @ire is connected bet@een them, current @ill flo@ fromthe point at + volts to the point at K volts. " measurement of voltage is much liAe a measurement of height. It gives #outhe difference in voltage bet@een those t@o points. If point " is at !K volts andpoint ? is at $ volts then the voltage measured bet@een " and ? is M volts (!K R$). 3his is similar to measuring height. Ee measure the height of hills the same@a#.Ee sa# the sea level is at zero feet and then compare other points to that level.:n top of =ar#Ss 2eaA #ou are 'KKK ft high (compared to sea level). In thesame @a# @e call the lo@est voltage in a circuit zero volts and give it that nameground. 3hen all other points in the circuit are compared to that ground point.9ivers al@a#s flo@ to@ard sea level and currents al@a#s flo@ to@ard ground. " batter# is similar to a dam. :n one side is a lot of stored up energ#. Ehen apath is formed from that side then current flo@s. If there is no path then currentdoes not flo@ and the energ# 1ust sta#s there @aiting for a path to form to theother side. 3he path can be a big path @ith lots of current flo@ing or a smallpath @ith 1ust a little bit of current flo@ing.

Eith a dam, a little bit of @ater flo@ could go on for long time, but flo@ through abig path that lets all the @ater go at once @ould onl# last a short @hile. " batter# is the same, if there is big path from high voltage side to the lo@voltage side then the batter# @ill not last long. 3here are t@o special cases that@e give names. :ne is @hen the current is zero (open circuit) and the other is@hen the voltage is zero (short circuit).'pen irc#it "n open circuit is @hen t@o points are not connected b# an#thing. Do currentflo@s and nothing happen. If a @ire in #our vacuum cleaner breaAs it can causean open circuit and no current can flo@, so it does not do an#thing. 3here ma#be a voltage bet@een t@o points but the current canSt flo@ @ithout a connection.

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'pen irc#it

Sort irc#it " short circuit (or short) is @hen t@o points @ith different voltage levels areconnected @ith no resistance bet@een t@o points. 3his can cause a largeamount of current to flo@. If a short circuit happens in #our house, it @ill usuall#cause a circuit breaAer to braAe or a fuse to blo@. If there is no device to limitthe current, the @ires ma# melt and cause a fire. 3his situation is something liAea dam breaAing. 3here is large amount of energ# suddenl# free to flo@ from ahigh point to a lo@ point @ith nothing to limit the current.

*hort %ircuit

Series onnection " series connection is @hen t@o points components are 1oined together b# acommon leg and nothing else is connected to that point.

$arallel onnection " parallel connection is @hen t@o components are 1oined together b# both legs.ctivit; Ins8er te J#estions

1* De%ine c#rrentP

1* De%ine voltageP2* De%ine an open circ#itP

NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN>* De%ine a sort circ#itP

ctivit; IIUnderline te ad9ectivesctivit; IIIDo te passive voice eHercises %rom pag?efore readingEhat do #ou Ano@ about the histor# of an integrated circuitB Erite inside the

balloons, Ae# @ords or phrases to indicate @hat #ou Ano@ about it

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http<<nobelprize.org<educational4games<ph#sics<integrated4circuit<histor#<

3he 8istor# of the Integrated

%ircuit

Integrated %ircuits

2hotoDobelprize.org

:ur @orld is full of integrated circuits. Houfind several of them in computers. >or example, most people have probabl# heardabout the microprocessor. 3hemicroprocessor is an integrated circuit thatprocesses all information in the computer.It Aeeps tracA of @hat Ae#s are pressedand if the mouse has been moved. Itcounts numbers and runs programs,games and the operating s#stem.

Integrated circuits are also found in almostever# modern electrical device such ascars, television sets, %6 pla#ers, cellular phones, etc. ?ut @hat is an integratedcircuit and @hat is the histor# behind itB lectric %ircuits

3he integrated circuit is nothing more thana ver# advanced electric circuit. "n electriccircuit is made from different electricalcomponents such as transistors, resistors,capacitors and diodes, that are connectedto each other in different @a#s. 3hesecomponents have different behaviors.3he transistor acts liAe a s@itch. It can turnelectricit# on or off, or it can amplif#current. It is used for example in computersto store information, or in stereo amplifiersto maAe the sound signal stronger.3he resistor limits the flo@ of electricit# andgives us the possibilit# to control the

amount of current that is allo@ed to pass.9esistors are used, among other things, tocontrol the volume in television sets or radios.3he capacitor collects electricit# andreleases it all in one quicA burst liAe for instance in cameras @here a tin# batter#can provide enough energ# to fire theflashbulb.3he diode stops electricit# under someconditions and allo@s it to pass onl# @hen

these conditions change. 3his is used in,for example, photocells @here a light beam

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http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/physics/integrated_circuit/history/

http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/physics/integrated_circuit/history/



that is broAen triggers the diode to stopelectricit# from flo@ing through it.3hese components are liAe the buildingblocAs in an electrical construction Ait.6epending on ho@ the components are put

together @hen building the circuit,ever#thing from a burglar alarm to acomputer microprocessor can beconstructed. 3he 3ransistor vs. the Facuum 3ube

3he vacuum tubeand the transistor.2hotoDobelprize.org

DI"%53he firstdigital computer 2hoto ;.* "rm#

:f the components mentioned above, thetransistor is the most important one for thedevelopment of modern computers. ?eforethe transistor, engineers had to usevacuum tubes. Gust as the transistor, the

vacuum tube can s@itch electricit# on or off, or amplif# a current. *o @h# @as thevacuum tube replaced b# the transistorB3here are several reasons.3he vacuum tube looAs and behaves ver#much liAe a light bulb it generates a lot of heat and has a tendenc# to burn out. "lso,compared to the transistor it is slo@, bigand bulA# .Ehen engineers tried to buildcomplex circuits using the vacuum tube,the# quicAl# became a@are of itslimitations. 3he first digital computer DI"%, for example, @as a huge monster that @eighed over thirt# tons, andconsumed $KK Ailo@atts of electricalpo@er. It had around !M,KKK vacuum tubesthat constantl# burned out, maAing it ver#unreliable.Ehen the transistor @asinvented in !'/ it @as considered arevolution. *mall, fast, reliable andeffective, it quicAl# replaced the vacuum

tube. >reed from the limitations of thevacuum tube, engineers finall# could beginto realize the electrical constructions of their dreams, or could the#B 3he 3#rann# of Dumbers

Eith the small and effective transistor attheir hands, electrical engineers of the +Kssa@ the possibilities of constructing far more advanced circuits than before.8o@ever, as the complexit# of the circuits

gre@, problems started arising.Ehen building a circuit, it is ver# important

25



that all connections are intact. If not, theelectrical current @ill be stopped on its @a#through the circuit, maAing the circuit fail.?efore the integrated circuit, assembl#@orAers had to construct circuits b# hand,

soldering each component in place andconnecting them @ith metal @ires.ngineers soon realized that manuall#assembling the vast number of tin#components needed in, for example, acomputer @ould be impossible, especiall#@ithout generating a single fault#connection. "nother problem @as the size of thecircuits. " complex circuit, liAe a computer,@as dependent on speed. If the

components of the computer @ere toolarge or the @ires interconnecting them toolong, the electric signals couldnTt travel fastenough through the circuit, thus maAing thecomputer too slo@ to be effective.*o there @as a problem of numbers. "dvanced circuits contained so man#components and connections that the#@ere virtuall# impossible to build. 3hisproblem @as Ano@n as the t#rann# of numbers.

GacA * Uilb#2hoto 3exasInstruments

GacA Uilb#Ts %hip 5 the =onolithic IdeaIn the summer of !+M GacA Uilb# at 3exasInstruments found a solution to thisproblem. 8e @as ne@l# emplo#ed and hadbeen set to @orA on a pro1ect to buildsmaller electrical circuits. 8o@ever, thepath that 3exas Instruments had chosen for its miniaturization pro1ect didnTt seem to bethe right one to Uilb#.

?ecause he @as ne@l# emplo#ed, Uilb#had no vacation liAe the rest of the staff.EorAing alone in the lab, he sa@ anopportunit# to find a solution of his o@n tothe miniaturization problem. Uilb#Ts idea@as to maAe all the components and thechip out of the same blocA (monolith) of semiconductor material. Ehen the rest of the @orAers returned from vacation, Uilb#presented his ne@ idea to his superiors. 8e@as allo@ed to build a test version of his

circuit. In *eptember !+M, he had his firstintegrated circuit read#. It @as tested and it

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Uilb#s first chip2hoto 3exasInstruments

@orAed perfectl#V "lthough the first integrated circuit @asprett# crude and had some problems, theidea @as groundbreaAing. ?# maAing allthe parts out of the same blocA of material

and adding the metal needed to connectthem as a la#er on top of it, there @as nomore need for individual discretecomponents. Do more @ires andcomponents had to be assembledmanuall#. 3he circuits could be madesmaller and the manufacturing processcould be automated.GacA Uilb# is probabl# most famous for hisinvention of the integrated circuit, for @hichhe received the Dobel 2rize in 2h#sics in

the #ear $KKK. "fter his success @ith theintegrated circuit Uilb# sta#ed @ith 3exasInstruments and, among other things, heled the team that invented the hand5heldcalculator. 9obert Do#ce

9obert Do#ce2hoto Intel =useum "rchives

9obert Do#ce came up @ith his o@n ideafor the integrated circuit. 8e did it half a#ear later than GacA Uilb#. Do#ceTs circuitsolved several practical problems thatUilb#Ts circuit had, mainl# the problem of interconnecting all the components on thechip. 3his @as done b# adding the metal asa final la#er and then removing some of itso that the @ires needed to connect thecomponents @ere formed. 3his made theintegrated circuit more suitable for massproduction. ?esides being one of the earl#pioneers of the integrated circuit, 9obertDo#ce also @as one of the co5founders of

Intel. Intel is one of the largestmanufacturers of integrated circuits in the@orld.

%hip 2roduction 3oda# 5 in *hort%hip production toda# is based onphotolithograph#. In photolithograph# ahigh energ# ;F5light is shone through a

masA onto a slice of silicon covered @ith aphotosensitive film. 3he masA describes

27



*tepping.

the parts of the chip and the ;F5light @illonl# hit the areas not covered b# the masA.Ehen the film is developed, the areas hitb# light are removed. Do@ the chip hasunprotected and protected areas forming a

pattern that is the first step to the finalcomponents of the chip.Dext, the unprotected areas are processedso their electrical properties change. " ne@la#er of material is added, and the entireprocess is then repeated to build thecircuit, la#er b# la#er. Ehen all thecomponents have been made and thecircuit is complete a la#er of metal isadded. Gust as before, a la#er of photosensitive film is applied and exposed

through a masA. 8o@ever, this time themasA used describes the la#out of the@ires connecting all the parts of the chip.3he film is developed and the unexposedparts are removed. Dext, the metal notprotected @ith film is removed to form the@ires. >inall#, the chip is tested andpacAaged.Ehen maAing chips toda#, a process calledWsteppingW is often used. :n a big @afer of silicon the chips are made one next to theother. 3he silicon @afer is moved in stepsunder the masA and the ;F5light to exposethe @afer. In this @a#, chip after chip canbe made using the same masA each time.?elo@ is a more sequential description of the process of maAing a modern integratedcircuit. ?ut let us first taAe a looA at thespecial place @here integrated circuits areproduced 5 the clean room.

3he %lean 9oom3he sizes of the components on chipsproduced in a modern chip fabrication plantare extremel# small. >or a better understanding of ho@ small the# are, picAa hair from #our head and cut it in half.Do@ looA at the cross section. :n this tin#area, hard to see @ith the bare e#e, #oucan fit thousands of modern transistors.Eith sizes this small, the production of a

chip demands precision at an atomic level.3in# particles liAe a hair, a specA of dust, a

28



%hild facingWbunn#suitW2hoto Intel =useum "rchives

dead sAin cell, bacteria or even the singleparticles in tobacco smoAe become hugeob1ects that are big enough to ruin a chip.3herefore, chip production taAes place in aclean room. 3his is a speciall# designed

room, @here furniture is built from specialmaterials that donTt give off particles, and@here extremel# effective air filters and air circulation s#stems change the air completel# up to ten times a minute.3o further prevent contamination, @orAers@ear special suits called Wbunn# suits.W3hese protective outfits are made of ultraclean material and sometimes have their o@n air filtering s#stems.

%hip 2roduction 3oda# 5 in 6etail ?uilding an integrated circuit liAe a

computer chip is a ver# complex process. Itis divided into t@o ma1or parts, front endand bacA end. In the front end, #ou maAethe components of the circuit. In the bacAend, #ou add metal to connect thecomponents and then #ou test andpacAage the chip. ?elo@ is a simplifieddescription of the steps.

>ront nd R %onstruction of the%omponents!.Gust as in building a house, #ou need aconstruction plan to construct a chip. 3heconstruction plans for the chip are madeand tested @ith a computer.

$.>rom the construction plans, masAs @iththe circuit patterns are made.

&.;nder precisel# monitored conditions, apure silicon cr#stal is gro@n. %ircuitmanufacturing demands the use of cr#stals@ith an extremel# high grade of perfection.

29



'.3he silicon is sa@ed into thin @afers @ith adiamond sa@. 3he @afers are thenpolished in a number of steps until their surface has a perfect mirror5liAe finish.

+.3he silicon @afer is covered @ith a la#er of insulating silicon oxide.

-. " covering film of protective material is puton top of the insulating silicon oxide. 3hismaterial, a bit liAe the film in an# ordinar#camera, is sensitive to light.

/.;F5light is shone through a masA and ontothe chip. :n the parts of the chip that arehit b# light, the protective material breaAsapart.

M.3he @afer is developed, rinsed and baAed.3he development process removes theparts of the protective material exposed tolight.

.3he @afer is treated @ith chemicals in aprocess called Wetching.W 3his removes theunprotected insulating material, creating apattern of non5protected silicon @afer partssurrounded b# areas protected b# siliconoxide.!K.3he @afer is run through a process thatalters the electrical properties of the

unprotected areas of the @afer. 3hisprocess is called Wdoping.W *teps +5!K arerepeated to build the integrated circuit,la#er b# la#er. :ther la#ers of conductingor isolating la#ers ma# also be added tomaAe the components.

?acA nd R "dding the %onnecting Eires!!.>inall#, @hen all the components of thechip are read#, metal is added to connectthe components to each other in a process

called metalization. 3his is done in a @a#similar to the maAing of the components.

30



>irst a conducting metal liAe copper isdeposited over the chip.

!$.:n top of the metal a la#er of ;F5sensitivephoto resist is added.

!&.Dext, a masA that describes the desiredla#out of the metal @ires connecting thecomponents of the chip is used. ;F5light isshone through this masA. 3he light hits the

photo resist that isnTt protected b# themasA.!'.In the next step, chemicals are used toremove the photo resist hit b# ;F5light.

!+. "nother step of etching removes the metalnot protected b# photo resist.

!-.3his leaves a pattern of metal that is thesame as the one described b# the masA.Do@, the chip has a la#er of @ires thatconnect its different components.

!/.3oda#, most integrated circuits need morethan one la#er of @ires. "dvanced circuits

ma# need up to five different la#ers of metal to form all the necessar#connections. In the last picture @e haveadded another la#er of metal to our example. "s #ou can see, a la#er of insulating material is put bet@een the t@ometal la#ers to prevent the @ires fromconnecting in the @rong places. :f course,to add the second la#er @e had to gothrough the same steps as @hen addingthe first la#er of metal.

31



!M.Ehen the final la#er of connecting metal@ires have been added, the chips on thesilicon @afer are tested to see if the#perform as intended.

!.3he chips on the @afer are separated @itha diamond sa@ to form individualintegrated circuits.

$K.>inall#, each chip is pacAed into theprotective casing and sub1ected to another series of tests. 3he chip is no@ finishedand read# to be shipped to manufacturers

of digital devices around the @orld.

3he volution of the Integrated %ircuit

GacA Uilb# examinesa @afer filled @ithchips.2hoto 3exasInstruments

3he integrated circuit has come a long @a#since GacA Uilb#Ts first protot#pe. 8is ideafounded a ne@ industr# and is the Ae#element behind our computerized societ#.3oda# the most advanced circuits containseveral hundred millions of components onan area no larger than a fingernail. 3hetransistors on these chips are around Knm, that is K.KKKK millimetersX, @hichmeans that #ou could fit hundreds of thesetransistors inside a red blood cell.ach #ear computer chips become morepo@erful #et cheaper than the #ear before.0ordon =oore, one of the earl# integratedcircuit pioneers and founders of Intel oncesaid, WIf the auto industr# advanced as

rapidl# as the semiconductor industr#, a9olls 9o#ce @ould get a half a million milesper gallon, and it @ould be cheaper tothro@ it a@a# than to parA it.WXXX! inch C $+.' millimetersXX! ;* gallon C &.M litres, ! mile C !.- Am

$art I ns8er te %ollo8ing J#estions*1* Oat is an integrated circ#itP

4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 2* Oat is an electric circ#itP

>* Oic 8as Qil:iRs ideaP NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN

32



/* Oat is a transistorP$art II Underline te prepositions$art III Underline te tecnical 8ords$art I4 Underline te connectors

agnetism*ource %itation W=agnetism.W DISCovering Science. 0ale 9esearch, .9eproduced in 6iscovering %ollection. >armington 8ills, =ich. 0ale 0roup.6ecember, $KKK.http<<galenet.galegroup.com<servlet<6%<*ource 6atabase 6I*%overing *cience

=agnetism is a force generated in matter b# the motion of electrons @ithin itsatoms. =agnetism and electricit# represent different aspects of the force of electromagnetism, @hich is one part of DatureTs fundamental electro@eaA force.3he region in space that is penetrated b# the imaginar# lines of magnetic force

describes a magnetic field. 3he strength of the magnetic field is determined b#the number of lines of force per unit area of space. =agnetic fields are createdon a large scale either b# the passage of an electric current through magneticmetals or b# magnetized materials called magnets. 3he elemental metals5iron,cobalt, nicAel, and their solid solutions or allo#s @ith related metallic elements5are t#pical materials that respond strongl# to magnetic fields. ;nliAe the all5pervasive fundamental force field of gravit#, the magnetic force field @ithin amagnetized bod#, such as a bar magnet, is polarized5that is, the field isstrongest and of opposite signs at the t@o extremities or poles of the magnet.

3istor; o% magnetism 3he histor# of magnetism dates bacA to earlier than -KK b.c., but it is onl# in thet@entieth centur# that scientists have begun to understand it, and developtechnologies based on this understanding. =agnetism @as most probabl# firstobserved in a form of the mineral magnetite called lodestone, @hich consists of iron oxide5a chemical compound of iron and ox#gen. 3he ancient 0reeAs @erethe first Ano@n to have used this mineral, @hich the# called a magnet becauseof its abilit# to attract other pieces of the same material and iron.3he nglishman Eilliam 0ilbert (!+'K5!-K&) @as the first to investigate thephenomenon of magnetism s#stematicall# using scientific methods. 8e alsodiscovered that the arth is itself a @eaA magnet. arl# theoretical

investigations into the nature of the arthTs magnetism @ere carried out b# the0erman %arl >riedrich 0auss (!///5!M++). 7uantitative studies of magneticphenomena initiated in the eighteenth centur# b# >renchman %harles %oulomb(!/&-5!MK-), @ho established the inverse square la@ of force, @hich states thatthe attractive force bet@een t@o magnetized ob1ects is directl# proportional tothe product of their individual fields and inversel# proportional to the square of the distance bet@een them. 6anish ph#sicist 8ans %hristian :ersted(!///5!M+!) first suggested a linA bet@een electricit# and magnetism. xperimentsinvolving the effects of magnetic and electric fields on one another @ere thenconducted b# >renchman "ndre =arie "mpere (!//+5!M&-) and nglishman=ichael >arada# (!/!5!M-), but it @as the *cotsman, Games %lerA =ax@ell

(!M&!5!M/), @ho provided the theoretical foundation to the ph#sics of electromagnetism in the nineteenth centur# b# sho@ing that electricit# and

33

http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/DC/

http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/DC/



magnetism represent different aspects of the same fundamental force field.3hen, in the late !-Ks "merican *teven Eeinberg (!&&5 ) and 2aAistani "bdus *alam (!$-5 ), performed #et another act of theoretical s#nthesis of thefundamental forces b# sho@ing that electromagnetism is one part of theelectro@eaA force. 3he modern understanding of magnetic phenomena in

condensed matter originates from the @orA of t@o >renchmen 2ierre %urie(!M+5!K-), the husband and scientific collaborator of =adame =arie %urie(!M-/5!&'), and 2ierre Eeiss (!M-+5!'K). %urie examined the effect of temperature on magnetic materials and observed that magnetism disappearedsuddenl# above a certain critical temperature in materials liAe iron. Eeissproposed a theor# of magnetism based on an internal molecular fieldproportional to the average magnetization that spontaneousl# align theelectronic micromagnets in magnetic matter. 3he present da# understanding of magnetism based on the theor# of the motion and interactions of electrons inatoms (called quantum electrod#namics) stems from the @orA and theoreticalmodels of t@o 0ermans, rnest Ising (!KK5 ) and Eerner 8eisenberg (!K!5

!/-). Eerner 8eisenberg @as also one of the founding fathers of modernquantum mechanics. 'rigin o% magnetism =agnetism arises from t@o t#pes of motions of electrons in atoms5one is themotion of the electrons in an orbit around the nucleus, similar to the motion of the planets in our solar s#stem around the sun, and the other is the spin of theelectrons around its axis, analogous to the rotation of the arth about its o@naxis. 3he orbital and the spin motion independentl# impart a magnetic momenton each electron causing each of them to behave as a tin# magnet. 3hemagnetic moment of a magnet is defined b# the rotational force experienced b#it in a magnetic field of unit strength acting perpendicular to its magnetic axis. Ina large fraction of the elements, the magnetic moment of the electrons cancelout because of the 2auli exclusion principle , @hich states that each electronicorbit can be occupied b# onl# t@o electrons of opposite spin. 8o@ever, anumber of so5called transition metal atoms, such as iron, cobalt, and nicAel,have magnetic moments that are not cancelled these elements are, therefore,common examples of magnetic materials. In these transition metal elements themagnetic moment arises onl# from the spin of the electrons. In the rare earthelements (that begin @ith lanthanum in the sixth ro@ of the 2eriodic 3able of lements), ho@ever, the effect of the orbital motion of the electrons is not

cancelled, and hence both spin and orbital motion contribute to the magneticmoment. xamples of some magnetic rare earth elements are cerium,neod#mium, samarium, and europium. In addition to metals and allo#s of transition and rare earth elements, magnetic moments are also observed in a@ide variet# of chemical compounds involving these elements. "mong thecommon magnetic compounds are the metal oxides, @hich are chemicall#bonded compositions of metals @ith ox#gen.3he arthTs geomagnetic field is the result of electric currents produced b# theslo@ convective motion of its liquid core in accordance @ith a basic la@ of electromagnetism @hich states that a magnetic field is generated b# thepassage of an electric current. "ccording to this model, the arthTs core should

be electricall# conductive enough to allo@ generation and transport of anelectric current. 3he geomagnetic field generated @ill be dipolar in character,

34



similar to the magnetic field in a conventional magnet, @ith lines of magneticforce l#ing in approximate planes passing through the geomagnetic axis. 3heprinciple of the compass needle used b# the ancient mariners involves thealignment of a magnetized needle along the arthTs magnetic axis @ith theimaginar# south pole of the needle pointing to@ards the magnetic north pole of

the arth. 3he magnetic north pole of the arth is inclined at an angle of !!degrees a@a# from its geographical north pole. T;pes o% magnetism>ive basic t#pes of magnetism have been observed and classified on the basisof the magnetic behavior of materials in response to magnetic fields at differenttemperatures. 3hese t#pes of magnetism are ferromagnetism, ferrimagnetism,antiferromagnetism, paramagnetism, and diamagnetism.>erromagnetism and ferrimagnetism occur @hen the magnetic moments in amagnetic material line up spontaneousl# at a temperature belo@ the so5called%urie temperature, to produce net magnetization. 3he magnetic moments are

aligned at random at temperatures above the %urie point, but become ordered,t#picall# in a vertical or, in special cases, in a spiral (helical) arra#, belo@ thistemperature. In a ferromagnet magnetic moments of equal magnitude arrangethemselves in parallel to each other. In a ferrimagnet, on the other hand, themoments are unequal in magnitude and order in an antiparallel arrangement.Ehen the moments are equal in magnitude and ordering occurs at atemperature called the Deel temperature in an antiparallel arra# to give no netmagnetization, the phenomenon is referred to as antiferromagnetism. 3hesetransitions from disorder to order represent classic examples of phasetransitions. "nother example of a phase transition is the freezing of thedisordered molecules of @ater at a critical temperature of &$Y> (KY%) to form theordered structure of ice. 3he magnetic moments5referred to as spins5arelocalized on the tin# electronic magnets @ithin the atoms of the solid.=athematicall#, the electronic spins are equal to the angular momentum (therotational velocit# times the moment of inertia) of the rotating electrons. 3hespins in a ferromagnetic or a ferrimagnetic single cr#stal undergo spontaneousalignment to form a macroscopic (large scale) magnetized ob1ect. =ostmagnetic solids, ho@ever, are not single cr#stals, but consist of single cr#staldomains separated b# domain @alls. 3he spins align @ithin a domain belo@ the%urie temperature, independentl# of an# external magnetic field, but thedomains have to be aligned in a magnetic field in order to produce a

macroscopic magnetized ob1ect. 3his process is effected b# the rotation of thedirection of the spins in the domain @all under the influence of the magneticfield, resulting in a displacement of the @all and the eventual creation of a singlelarge domain @ith the same spin orientation.2aramagnetism is a @eaA form of magnetism observed in substances @hichdispla# a positive response to an applied magnetic field. 3his response isdescribed b# its magnetic susceptibilit# per unit volume, @hich is adimensionless quantit# defined b# the ratio of the magnetic moment to themagnetic field intensit#. 2aramagnetism is observed, for example, in atoms andmolecules @ith an odd number of electrons, since here the net magneticmoment cannot be zero. 6iamagnetism is associated @ith materials that have a

negative magnetic susceptibilit#. It occurs in nonmagnetic substances liAegraphite, copper, silver and gold, and in the superconducting state of certain

35



elemental and compound metals. 3he negative magnetic susceptibilit# in thesematerials is the result of a current induced in the electron orbits of the atoms b#the applied magnetic field. 3he electron current then induces a magneticmoment of opposite sign to that of the applied field. 3he net result of theseinteractions is that the material is shielded from penetration b# the applied

magnetic field.=easurement of magnetic field 3he magnetic field or flux densit# is measured in metric units of a gauss (0)and the corresponding international s#stem unit of a tesla (3). 3he magneticfield strength is measured in metric units of oersteds (:e) and internationalunits of amperes per meter ("<m). Instruments called gaussmeters andmagnetometers are used to measure the magnitude of magnetic fields. :neform of the gaussmeter that is used commonl# in the laborator# consists of acurrent carr#ing semiconducting element called the 8all probe, @hich is placedperpendicular to the magnetic field being measured. "s a consequence of theso5called 8all effect, a voltage perpendicular to the field and to the current is

generated in the probe. 3his induced voltage is proportional to the magneticfield being measured and can be simpl# measured using a voltmeter.=agnetometers are extremel# sensitive magnetic field detectors. In onecommonl# used form the magnetic force is detected b# means of a sensitiveelectronic balance. In this instrument the magnetic substance is placed on onearm of a balance, @hich in turn is placed in a magnetic field. 3he magnetic forceon the sample is then determined b# the @eight required to balance the forcegenerated b# the magnetic field. 3he most sensitive magnetometer in a modernph#sics laborator# utilizes a magnetic sensing element called the *7;I6 (@hichstands for *uperconducting 7;antum Interference 6evice). " *7;I6 consistsof an extremel# thin electricall# resistive 1unction (called a Gosephson 1unction)bet@een t@o superconductors . *uperconductors are materials @hich undergo atransition at lo@ temperatures to a state of zero electrical resistance and nearl#complete exclusion of magnetic fields. In its direct current mode of operation, a*7;I6 is first cooled do@n to its superconducting state, and then a current ispassed through it @hile the voltage across the 1unction is monitored. Ehen the 1unction senses a magnetic field, the flo@ of current is altered due to aninterference phenomenon at the quantum level bet@een t@o electron @avefronts through the 1unction, resulting in a change in voltage. Interference is aphenomenon that occurs generall# due to the mixing of t@o @ave fronts the@aves add up in some regions and cancel out in others depending on the

location of the crest and trough of each @ave in space. >or example, theinterference bet@een the sound @aves from t@o simultaneousl# pla#ed musicalinstruments tuned at some@hat different frequencies results in the occurrenceof beats or modulations in the sound intensit#. " variation of the *7;I6magnetometer is the *7;I6 gradiometer @hich measures differences inmagnetic fields at different positions. ;sing this t#pe of instrument magneticfield variations in the femtotesla (!K5!+ tesla) range can be detected. 6evices of this t#pe have been used to map the tin# magnetic signals from the humanbrain.

pplications o% magnetism

lectromagnets are utilized as Ae# components of transformers in po@er supplies that convert electrical energ# from a @all outlet into direct current

36



energ# for a @ide range of electronic devices, and in motors and generators.8igh field superconducting magnets (@here superconducting coils generate themagnetic field) provide the magnetic field in =9I (magnetic resonance imaging)devices that are no@ used extensivel# in hospitals and medical centers.=agnetic materials that are difficult to demagnetize are used to construct

permanent magnets. 2ermanent magnet applications are in loudspeaAers,earphones, electric meters, and small motors. " loudspeaAer consists of a @irecarr#ing an alternating current . Ehen the @ire is in the magnetic field of thepermanent magnet it experiences a force that generates a sound @ave b#alternate compression and rarefaction of the surrounding air @hen thealternating frequenc# of the current is in the audible range.3he more esoteric applications of magnetism are in the area of magneticrecording and storage devices in computers, and in audio and video s#stems.=agnetic storage devices @orA on the principle of t@o stable magnetic statesrepresented b# the K and ! in the binar# number s#stem. >lopp# disAs havedozens of tracAs on @hich data can be digitall# @ritten in or stored b# means of

a @rite5head and then accessed or read b# means of a read5head. " @rite5headprovides a strong local magnetic field to the region through @hich the storagetracA of the disA is passed. 3he read5head senses stra# magnetic flux from thestorage tracA of the disA as it passes over the head. "nother example of digitalmagnetic storage and reading is the magnetic strip on the bacA of plastic debitand credit cards. 3he magnetic strip contains identification data @hich can beaccessed through, for example, an automatic teller machine. ctivit; I* Orite a s#mmar; a:o#t te teHt NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN

ctivit; II Underline te passive voicectivit; III Underline te connectorsctivit; I4 Underline te ad9ectives and 8rite sentences 8itcomparatives and s#perlatives

!5!T,IITctivit; I*

?efore reading , @rite three ideas according to the title!.44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 $.44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 &.44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 B* Using te reading strategies 8rite te main idea o% te teHt NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN

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37



/* Underline in te teHt 8ords or prases related to Tecnical !nglis!lectrical $roperties o% Solids 3he first artificial electrical phenomenon to be observed @as the propert#displa#ed b# certain resinous substances such as amber, @hich becomenegativel# charged @hen rubbed @ith a piece of fur or @oolen cloth and then

attract small ob1ects. *uch a bod# has an excess of electrons. " glass rodrubbed @ith silA has a similar po@er to attract uncharged ob1ects and attractsnegativel# charged ob1ects even more strongl#. 3he glass has a positive charge,@hich can be described either as a deficienc# of electrons or an excess of protons. Ehen some atoms combine to form solids, one or more electrons are oftenliberated and can move @ith ease through the material. lectrons are easil#liberated in some materials, @hich are Ano@n as conductors. =etals, particularl#copper and silver, are good conductors.=aterials in @hich the electrons are tightl# bound to the atoms are Ano@n asinsulators, nonconductors, or dielectrics.0lass, rubber, and dr# @ood are

examples of these materials. " third Aind of material is a solid in @hich a relativel# small number of electrons can be freed from their atoms in such a manner as to leave a OholeP@here each electron had been. 3he hole, representing the absence of anegative electron, behaves as though it @ere positivel# charged. "n electric field@ill cause both negative electrons and positive holes to move through thematerial, thus producing a current of electricit#. *uch a solid, called asemiconductor, generall# has a higher resistance to the flo@ of current than aconductor such as copper but a lo@er resistance than an insulator such asglass. If most of the current is carried b# the negative electrons, thesemiconductor is called n5t#pe. If most of the current is carried b# the positiveholes, the semiconductor is said to be p5t#pe. If a material @ere a perfect conductor, a charge @ould pass through it@ithout resistance, and a perfect insulator @ould allo@ no charge to be forcedthrough it. Do substance of either t#pe is Ano@n at room temperature. 3he bestconductors at room temperature offer a lo@ resistance (but not zero) to the flo@of current. 3he best insulators offer a high resistance (but not infinite) at roomtemperature. =ost metals, ho@ever, lose all their resistance at temperaturesnear absolute zero this phenomenon is called superconductivit#.

!lectric arges

:ne quantitative tool used to demonstrate the presence of electric chargesis the electroscope. 3his device also indicates @hether the charge is negative or positive, and it determines and measures the intensit# of radiation. "s first usedb# the ?ritish ph#sicist and chemist =ichael >arada#. 3he electroscope consistsof t@o leaves of thin metal foil suspended from a metal support inside a glass or other nonconducting container. " Anob collects the electric charges charges,either positive or negative, are conducted along the metal support and travel toboth leaves. 3he liAe charges repel one another, and the leaves fl# apart, thedistance bet@een them depending roughl# on the quantit# of charges. 3hree methods ma# be used to charge an ob1ect electricall# (!) b# contact@ith another ob1ect of dissimilar substance (such as contact bet@een amber

and fur), follo@ed b# separation ($) b# contact @ith another charged bod# and(&) b# induction.

38



#rrent !lectricit; If t@o equall# and oppositel# charged bodies are connected b# a metallicconductor such as a @ire, the charges neutralize each other. 3his neutralizationis accomplished b# means of a flo@ of electrons through the conductor from the

negativel# charged bod# to the positivel# charged one. (In some branches of electrical engineering, electric current has been conventionall# assumed to flo@in the opposite direction, that is, from positive to negative. In an# continuouss#stem of conductors, electrons @ill flo@ from the point of lo@est potential to thepoint of highest potential. " s#stem of this Aind is called an electric current. 3hecurrent flo@ing in a circuit is described as direct current (6%) if it flo@scontinuousl# in one direction, and as alternating current ("%) if it flo@salternatel# in either direction.

ctivit; I* Orite a s#mmar; a:o#t te teHt

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"losario para el 2 J#i.!nglis Spanis !nglis Spanis

"llo# "leacin Iron 8ierro%opper %obre 3in sta^oLead 2lomo 2e@ter 2eltre?rass Latn *older *oldadura*teel "cero %ast iron 8ierro colado%ompound %ompuesto 2ulle# 2olea%hain %adena Lathe 3omo3ool 8erramienta *procAet 2i^n, rueda

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41



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9esistance 9esistencia =ixture =ezclaLa#ers %apas *ensors *ensores%hip Firuta *@itch Interruptor

Te !lectronics "lossar;

ctive omponent& " component that provides gain or amplification such as transistor,integrated circuit, valve R such as a triode value.

erial& " length of @ire designed to transmit or receive radio @aves.

#dio reJ#enc;&0enerall# in the range $K8z to $KU8z.

#tomatic reJ#enc; ontrol&*imilar to "utomatic >ire 3une (">3). " circuit that Aeeps a receiverin tune @ith the @anted transmission.

#tomatic "ain ontrol&

" circuit that ad1usts the gain of a stage so that the volume isconstant even though the input signal ma# var# over a @ide range.

42



lternating #rrent ()& "n electric current @hose direction changes direction @ith afrequenc# independent of circuit components.

mplit#de od#lation ()&Ehen audio signals increase and decrease amplitude of the Ocarrier@aveP.

mmeter& Instrument for measuring the current in "mps, milliamps ormicroamps.

pm& "mpere.3he unit of electrical current. "lso milliamp (one thousandth of anamp) and microamp (one millionth of an amp). :ne ampcorresponds to the flo@ of about - x !K !M electrons per second.

mplit#de& 3he highest value reached b# voltage, current or po@er during acomplete c#cle.

nalog#e&

" s#stem in @hich data is represented as a continuousl# var#ingvoltage.

D "ate&0ate that produces a logic ! @hen all of its inputs are !. In all theother cases the output is K.

ntenna& " length of @ire or similar that radiates (such as a transmitting

antenna) or absorbs (such as a radio antenna) radio @aves.

sta:le& " circuit that has no stable state and thus oscillates at a frequenc#dependent on component values.

#dio& " signal that can be heard @ith the ears.

Bac6 !lectromotive orce& (bacA emf)3he emf that opposes the normal flo@ of current in acircuit.

43



Base&:ne terminal of a transistor. 0enerall# the input lead. It separatesthe collector and emitter regions.

Binar; #m:er& *#stem based on the number $. 3he binar# digits are K and !.

Bipolar Transistor&3he most common form of transistor.

Bista:le&%ircuit that has t@o stable states.

Bit&?inar# 6igit5 the smallest unit of binar# data. *ee also b#te.

Bottoming& " transistor in the full# conducting state.

Bridge&0enerall# a short R circuit on a 2% board caused b# solder 1oining

t@o ad1acent tracAs.

Bridge ,ecti%ier& " full R @ave rectifier in @hich there are four arms R each containinga diode.

B; pass capacitor& " capacitor that provides a path of lo@ impedance R lo@ resistanceto "% signals.

B;te& " group of binar# digits that combine to maAe a @ord. 0enerall# Mbits. 8alf b#te is called a nibble. Large computers use !- bits and &$bits.

5ogical onnectors

dditive ditivo

44



1* dditiona) *impleb) "dditionall#c) =oreover d) Dot to mention this

2* !mpatica) ?esides thisb) Dot onl# this but` alsoc) as @ell

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member i) Including 1) 3o introduce a specific example

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A* Similarit;

1* dicióna) *impleb) "dicionalmente, n adicin.c) 3ambién, igualmente, ademásd) "demás, por otra parte, por no

decir nada de2* !n%Fticoa) 3ambién, además, másb) Do solamente esto, pero `

tambiénc) además

>* Intensi%icar a) n efecto, en realidadb) Ferdaderamente, a la verdadc) 2or decir la verdad, en realidadd) 2or no hablar de (negativo)

/* lternativoa) :b) "lternativamente

* !9empli%icacióna) 2ara e1emplificar un miembrob) 2or e1emploc) %omo el cuald) 2or e1emploe) 2ara e1emplificar a alguienf) specialmenteg) 2articularmenteh) 2ara introducir un miembro del

grupoi) Inclu#endo 1) 2ara introducir un e1emplo

especifico queA) entra en una >rase separado

por ell) argumento generalm) 2ara una cosan) %omo ilustracin

@* ,e%erenciaa) 2ara introducir un tpicob) 8ablando de (esto)c) %omo por (esto)d) %onsiderando (esto)e) 9especto a (esto)f) 9elativo a (esto)g) 3pico de (esto)h) %on<en respectoi) relacin a (esto) 1) referencia

A* Similit#da) *eme1antemente, de igual

45



a) *imilarl#b) LiAe@isec) In the same @a#

* Identi%icationa) 3o indentif# a constituent for

@hich the reader b) Listener has alread# beenprepared

c) 3hat isd) I mean

C* Digression10*lari%ication

a) 3o clarif# or rephrase precedingitem anterior

b) 3hat is (to sa#)c) In other @ords

d) I mean

manerab) "simismo, igualmentec) 6e la misma manera,

igualmente* Identi%icación

a) 2ara identificar algo o alguienque elb) Lector #a conoce previamentec) 7uiero decir d) so es

C* Digresión10*ali%icación

a) 2ara aclarar o reformular unapalabra anterior

b) 2ara decir c) n otras palabras

d) Ho quiero decir

dversative dversativo1* on%lictcontrast

a) ?utb) 8o@ever c) ?# @a# of contrastd) ("nd) #ete) Ehen in factf) In contrast

2* oncessiona) ?utb) ven soc) 8o@ever d) (and) stille) Deverthelessf) Donetheless

g) "lthoughh) 3hough, even though>* Dismissal

a) "ltemative circumstancesb) ither @a#c) Ehichever happensd) ;niversal circumstancese) Ehatever happensf) "ll the same

/* ,eplacementa) 3o rectif# a preceding item

b) "t leastc) 3o substitute a positive

1* on%lictoontrastea) 2erob) n contra posicinc) 2or lo contrariod) 3odavíae) "unquef) "un cuando

2* oncesióna) 2erob) "un asíc) "unqued) 3odavía, aune) Do obstante, sin embargof) "unque

g) "un cuandoh) "unque>* Despedida

a) 6espués, %ircunstancias alternativasb) 3ampococ) 2ase lo que pased) %iIcunstancias universalese) *uceda lo que sucedaf) n todo caso

/* ,eempla.oa) 2ara rectificar algo precedente

b) "l menosc) 2ara sustituir algo positivo por uno

46



statement for a negativenr tosubstitute an outcome for a priorexpectation

* Beginninga) "t first

@* ontin#ationa) 2reviousl#b) "fter@ards

A* oncl#sion* Divagation

a) ?# the @a#C* ,es#mption10*n;o811* S#mmation12*"eneral1>*In concl#sión

1/*To s#m #p1*To s#maries1@*,evie8 o% main idea or p#rpose1A*s I ave said1*s 8as previo#sl; stated1C*om:ination o% e%%ectres#lt and

s#mmar;20*Ten21*"iven(all) tese points22*Tere%ore2>*So2/*S#mmar; o% points2*'n te 8ole2@*ltogeter 2A*In all

negativo o algo actual por unaexpectativa antes algo resuelto

* omien.oa) 2ara empezar, iniciar

@* ontin#ación

a) 2reviamenteb) 6espués de todoA* oncl#sión* Divagación

a) " propsitoC* ,ean#dación10* De c#alJ#ier manera11* ,ecapit#lación12*"eneral1>*!n concl#sión1/*$ara s#mar

1*,es#miendo1@*,epaso de idea principal o propósito1A*omo di9e1*omo %#e previamente esta:lecido1C*om:inaci@n* De e%ectores#ltado ;20*S#matoria21*!ntonces22*Dados (todos) estos p#ntos2>*$or eso2/*S#ma de p#ntos2*!n general2@*Todo 9#nto2A*!n con 9#nto

a#sal a#sa1* a#sereason2* Beca#se o% >* !%%ect ,es#lt/* So

* Tere%ore

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* $or lo tanto

47



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4o. $asiva& laves*$resente4er:o en presente Is7 re7 m V 4er:o en participiopasado*

$asado4er:o en pasado Oas7 Oere V 4er:o en participiopasado*

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$ronom:res&I e o# o# 3e 3im

Se 3er Te; Tem Oe Us

!Hercises*!.3hose engineersSll fix the machine.$.=# boss @rote an e5mail.&.3hose engineers @ill melt those allo#s'.3he technician drinAs M glasses of @ater.+.3he ne@ electrician broAe all the computers.-.3he rain damages all the electrical connections./.Ee @ill send several e5 mails.M.?ob cut those pieces @ith a hammer.

. I picA up the tools!K. 3he old technician repairs ever#thing.!!. 3he#ve made a ne@ research in this field.

!$. *he taAes those files from m# office.

!&. Ee hit the ball ver# hard.. !'. 3he# read the labSs rules. !+.8e @rote the last alternating current functions. !-3he dogSs eaten the @ire. !/.3he#Sll use more insulator here. !M. 3@o pla#ers @in an :l#mpic medal.

!3he#Sve got nice ne@s #esterda#.$K. 8e shooA that liquid before coming

$!. 8eSs opened the @indo@ . $$. 3he# improved the ne@ formula.

$&. Hou suppl# ne@ allo#s for this experiment.

$'.3he# ve repaired those blades$+3he technician touches the bar magnet.

49



$-.3hose @orAers breath toxic acids. $/*heSs smoAed &K cigarettes.

$-. 8e turned on all the appliances.$/. Hou tested all the voltmeters.$M. I tooA the nuts from there.

$. 3he# did that mess.

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50



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51



!T5S 55'S% : D 0 9 = " D I ; = ; 6 I; " = ? 9 > : 3 " U = " * 99 F L I * % ; = * * 6 :Z % H : F D L 9 I L " ? ; D

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,'B'TIS9obotics is the branch of technolog# that deals @ith the design, construction,operation, and application of robots,! as @ell as computer s#stems for their control, sensor# feedbacA, and information processing. 3hese technologies deal@ith automated machines that can taAe the place of humans in dangerousenvironments or manufacturing processes, or resemble humans in appearance,behavior, and<or cognition. =an# of toda#Ts robots are inspired b# naturecontributing to the field of bio5inspired robotics.3he concept of creating machines that can operate autonomousl# dates bacAtoclassical times, but research into the functionalit# and potential uses of robotsdid not gro@ substantiall# until the $Kth centur#. $ 3hroughout histor#, roboticshas been often seen to mimic human behavior, and often manage tasAs in asimilar fashion. 3oda#, robotics is a rapidl# gro@ing field, as technologicaladvances continue, research, design, and building ne@ robots serve variouspractical purposes, @hether domesticall#, commerciall#, or militaril#. =an#robots do 1obs that are hazardous to people such as defusing bombs, exploringship@recAs, and mines.t#molog#

3he @ord robotics @as derived from the @ord robot , @hich @as introduced to thepublic b# %zech @riter Uarel apeA in his pla# R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots), @hich @as published in !$K. & 3he @ord robot comes from the *lavic@ord robota, @hich means labor. 3he pla# begins in a factor# that maAesartificial people calledrobots, creatures @ho can be mistaAen for humans Rsimilar to the modern ideas ofandroids. Uarel apeA himself did not coin the@ord. 8e @rote a short letter in reference to an et#molog# in the Oxford EnglisDictionar! in @hich he named his brother Gosef apeA as its actual originator.&

"ccording to the Oxford Englis Dictionar! , the @ord robotics @as first used inprint b# Isaac "simov, in his science fiction short stor# WLiarVW, published in =a#!'! in "stounding Science #iction. "simov @as una@are that he @as coining

the term since the science and technolog# of electrical devices is electronics,he assumedrobotics alread# referred to the science and technolog# of robots. In

52

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-OED-1

http://robotics/

http://times/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-2

http://robot/

http://robot/

http://robot/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechoslovakia

http://xn--apek-fua/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-KapekWebsite-3

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymology

http://dictionary/

http://dictionary/

http://capek/


http://dictionary/

http://asimov/

http://fiction/

http://fact/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-OED-1

http://robotics/

http://times/


http://robot/

http://robot/

http://robot/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechoslovakia

http://xn--apek-fua/


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymology

http://dictionary/

http://dictionary/

http://capek/


http://dictionary/

http://asimov/

http://fiction/

http://fact/



some of "simovTs other @orAs, he states that the first use of the@ord robotics @as in his short stor#Runaround ( "stounding *cience >iction,=arch !'$).'+ 8o@ever, the original publication of WLiarVW predates that of W9unaroundW b# five months, so the former is generall# cited as the @ordTsorigin.

3istor; o% ro:oticsIn !$/ the $ascinenmensc (Wmachine5humanW) g#noid humanoid robot (alsocalled W2arod#W, W>uturaW, W9obotrixW, or the W=aria impersonatorW) @as the firstand perhaps the most memorable depiction of a robot ever to appear on film@as pla#ed b# 0erman actress ?rigitte 8elm in >ritz LangTs film =etropolis.In !'$ the science fiction @riter Isaac "simov formulated his 3hree La@s of 9obotics.In !'M Dorbert Eiener formulated the principles of c#bernetics, the basis of practical robotics.>ull# autonomous robots onl# appeared in the second half of the $Kth centur#.

3he first digitall# operated and programmable robot, the ;nimate, @as installedin !-! to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting machine and stacA them.%ommercial andindustrial robots are @idespread toda# and used to perform 1obs more cheapl#, or more accuratel# and reliabl#, than humans. 3he# are alsoemplo#ed in 1obs @hich are too dirt#, dangerous, or dull to be suitable for humans. 9obots are @idel# used inmanufacturing, assembl#, pacAing andpacAaging, transport, earth and space exploration, surger#, @eaponr#,laborator# research, safet#, and the mass production of consumer and industrialgoods.-

$o8er so#rce>urther information 2o@er suppl# and nerg# storage "t present mostl# (lead5acid) batteries are used as a po@er source. =an#different t#pes of batteries can be used as a po@er source for robots. 3he#range from lead acid batteries @hich are safe and have relativel# long shelf livesbut are rather heav# to silver cadmium batteries that are much smaller involume and are currentl# much more expensive. 6esigning a batter# po@eredrobot needs to taAe into account factors such as safet#, c#cle lifetime and@eight. 0enerators, often some t#pe of internal combustion engine, can also beused. 8o@ever, such designs are often mechanicall# complex and need fuel,require heat dissipation and are relativel# heav#. " tether connecting the robot

to a po@er suppl# @ould remove the po@er suppl# from the robot entirel#. 3hishas the advantage of saving @eight and space b# moving all po@er generationand storage components else@here. 8o@ever, this design does come @ith thedra@bacA of constantl# having a cable connected to the robot, @hich can bedifficult to manage.!+ 2otential po@er sources could be

• pneumatic (compressed gases)• h#draulics (liquids)• fl#@heel energ# storage• organic garbage (through anaerobic digestion)• faeces (human, animal); may be interesting in a military cnte!t as faeces f

small cmbat gru"s may be reuse# fr the energy re$uirements f the rbt assistant

(see %&'s "r*ect +lingsht +tirling engine n h the system ul# "erate)

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maschinenmensch


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gynoid

http://robot/

http://helm/

http://lang/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film

http://asimov/

http://robotics/

http://robotics/

http://wiener/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics

http://robot/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unimate

http://robot/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturing


http://supply/

http://storage/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-Robot_Power_Sources-15


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumatics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic

http://storage/

http://digestion/

http://fact/




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gynoid

http://robot/

http://helm/

http://lang/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film

http://asimov/

http://robotics/

http://robotics/

http://wiener/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics

http://robot/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unimate

http://robot/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturing


http://supply/

http://storage/


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumatics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic

http://storage/

http://digestion/



ct#ation

" robotic leg po@ered b# air muscles "ctuators are liAe the WmusclesW of a robot, the parts @hich convert storedenerg# into movement. ?# far the most popular actuators are electric motorsthat spin a @heel or gear, and linear actuators that control industrial robots infactories. ?ut there are some recent advances in alternative t#pes of actuators,po@ered b# electricit#, chemicals, or compressed air.!lectric motors3he vast ma1orit# of robots use electric motors, often brushed and brushless 6%

motors in portable robots or "% motors in industrial robots and %D% machines.3hese motors are often preferred in s#stems @ith lighter loads, and @here thepredominant form of motion is rotational.5inear act#atorsFarious t#pes of linear actuators move in and out instead of b# spinning, andoften have quicAer direction changes, particularl# @hen ver# large forces areneeded such as @ith industrial robotics. 3he# are t#picall# po@ered b#compressed air (pneumatic actuator ) or an oil (h#draulic actuator ).Series elastic act#ators " spring can be designed as part of the motor actuator, to allo@ improved forcecontrol. It has been used in various robots, particularl#

@alAing humanoid robots.!-

ir m#scles

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http://muscles/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle

http://energy/

http://energy/

http://control/

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanoid


http://muscles/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle

http://energy/

http://energy/

http://control/

http://actuator/

http://system/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanoid




2neumatic artificial muscles, also Ano@n as air muscles, are special tubes thatcontract (t#picall# up to 'K) @hen air is forced inside them. 3he# have beenused for some robot applications.!/!M

#scle 8ire

=uscle @ire, also Ano@n as *hape =emor# "llo#, Ditinol or >lexinol Eire, is amaterial that contracts slightl# (t#picall# under +) @hen electricit# runs throughit. 3he# have been used for some small robot applications.!$K

!lectroactive pol;mers=ain article lectroactive ol#mers"2s or 2"=s are a ne@ plastic material that can contract substantiall# (up to&MK activation strain) from electricit#, and have been used in facial musclesand arms of humanoid robots,$! and to allo@ ne@ robots to float, $$ fl#, s@im or @alA.$&

$ie.o motors9ecent alternatives to 6% motors are piezo motors or ultrasonic motors. 3hese

@orA on a fundamentall# different principle, @hereb#tin# piezoceramic elements, vibrating man# thousands of times per second,cause linear or rotar# motion. 3here are different mechanisms of operation onet#pe uses the vibration of the piezo elements to @alA the motor in a circle or astraight line.$' "nother t#pe uses the piezo elements to cause a nut to vibrateand drive a scre@. 3he advantages of these motors are nanometer resolution,speed, and available force for their size. $+ 3hese motors are alread# availablecommerciall#, and being used on some robots. $-$/

!lastic nanot#:eslastic nanotubes are a promising artificial muscle technolog# in earl#5stageexperimental development. 3he absence of defects in carbonnanotubes enables these filaments to deform elasticall# b# several percent, @ithenerg# storage levels of perhaps !K G<cm& for metal nanotubes. 8uman bicepscould be replaced @ith an M mm diameter @ire of this material. *uch compactWmuscleW might allo@ future robots to outrun and out1ump humans.$M

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http://polymers/




http://motor/

http://motor/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezoelectricity


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanometre





http://nanotube/

http://nanotube/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joule






http://polymers/




http://motor/

http://motor/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezoelectricity


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanometre




http://nanotube/

http://nanotube/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joule




Sensinganip#lation

U;U" industrial robot operating in a foundr#>urther information =obile manipulator 9obots need to manipulate ob1ects picA up, modif#, destro#, or other@ise havean effect. 3hus the WhandsW of a robot are often referred to as end effectors,&$ @hile the WarmW is referred to as a mani%ulator .&& =ost robot arms havereplaceable effectors, each allo@ing them to perform some small range of tasAs.*ome have a fixed manipulator @hich cannot be replaced, @hile a fe@ have onever# general purpose manipulator, for example a humanoid hand.>or the definitive guide to all forms of robot end5effectors, their design, andusage consult the booA W9obot 0rippersW.&'

'ter metods o% locomotionl;ing " modern passenger airliner is essentiall# a fl#ing robot, @ith t@o humans tomanage it. 3he autopilot can control the plane for each stage of the 1ourne#,including taAeoff, normal flight, and even landing./! :ther fl#ing robots are

uninhabited, and are Ano@n as unmanned aerial vehicles (;"Fs). 3he# can besmaller and lighter @ithout a human pilot on board, and fl# into dangerousterritor# for militar# surveillance missions. *ome can even fire on targets under command. ;"Fs are also being developed @hich can fire on targetsautomaticall#, @ithout the need for a command from a human. :ther fl#ingrobots include cruise missiles, the ntomopter , and the pson micro helicopter robot. 9obots such as the "ir 2enguin, "ir 9a#, and "ir Gell# have lighter5than5air bodies, propelled b# paddles, and guided b# sonar.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundry

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http://airliner/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autopilot


http://vehicle/

http://missile/

http://www-robotics.usc.edu/~avatar/

http://www.epson.co.jp/e/newsroom/news_2004_08_18.htm


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KUKA

http://robot/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundry

http://manipulator/

http://effector/




http://airliner/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autopilot


http://vehicle/

http://missile/

http://www-robotics.usc.edu/~avatar/





3@o robot snaAes. Left one has -' motors (@ith $ degrees of freedom per segment), the right one !K.

Sna6ing

*everal snaAe robots have been successfull# developed. =imicAing the @a#real snaAes move, these robots can navigate ver# confined spaces, meaningthe# ma# one da# be used to search for people trapped in collapsed buildings./$ 3he Gapanese "%=59+ snaAe robot/& can even navigate both on land and in@ater./'

3#man-ro:ot interaction=ain article 8uman5robot interaction

Uismet can produce a range of facial expressions.If robots are to @orA effectivel# in homes and other non5industrial environments,the @a# the# are instructed to perform their 1obs, and especiall# ho@ the# @ill betold to stop @ill be of critical importance. 3he people @ho interact @ith them ma#have little or no training in robotics, and so an# interface @ill need to beextremel# intuitive. *cience fiction authors also t#picall# assume that robots @illeventuall# be capable of communicating @ith humansthrough speech, gestures, and facial expressions, rather than a command5lineinterface. "lthough speech @ould be the most natural @a# for the human tocommunicate, it is unnatural for the robot. It @ill probabl# be a long time beforerobots interact as naturall# as the fictional %5&2:.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snake




http://interaction/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesture

http://expression/

http://interface/

http://interface/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-3PO

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snake




http://interaction/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesture

http://expression/

http://interface/

http://interface/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-3PO



ontrol

2uppet =agnus, a robot5manipulated marionette @ith complex control s#stems>urther information %ontrol s#stem

3his section does not cite an; re%erences or so#rces. 2lease helpimprove this section b# adding citations to reliable sources. ;nsourcedmaterial ma# be challenged and removed. (&ul! )

3he mechanical structure of a robot must be controlled to perform tasAs. 3hecontrol of a robot involves three distinct phases R perception, processing, andaction (robotic paradigms). *ensors give information about the environment or the robot itself (e.g. the position of its 1oints or its end effector). 3his informationis then processed to calculate the appropriate signals to the actuators (motors)@hich move the mechanical.3he processing phase can range in complexit#. "t a reactive level, it ma#translate ra@ sensor information directl# into actuator commands. *ensor fusion ma# first be used to estimate parameters of interest (e.g. the position of the robotTs gripper) from nois# sensor data. "n immediate tasA (such as movingthe gripper in a certain direction) is inferred from these estimates. 3echniquesfrom control theor# convert the tasA into commands that drive the actuators. "t longer time scales or @ith more sophisticated tasAs, the robot ma# need to

build and reason @ith a WcognitiveW model. %ognitive models tr# to represent therobot, the @orld, and ho@ the# interact. 2attern recognition and computer visioncan be used to tracA ob1ects. =apping techniques can be used to build maps of the @orld. >inall#,motion planning and other artificial intelligence techniquesma# be used to figure out ho@ to act. >or example, a planner ma# figure outho@ to achieve a tasA @ithout hitting obstacles, falling over, etc.

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http://magnus/

http://system/

http://sources/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing/1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine

http://paradigms/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor

http://motor/

http://fusion/

http://fusion/

http://theory/

http://mapping/

http://planning/

http://intelligence/

http://magnus/

http://system/

http://sources/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing/1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine

http://paradigms/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor

http://motor/

http://fusion/

http://fusion/

http://theory/

http://mapping/

http://planning/

http://intelligence/



#tonom; levels

3:2I:, a humanoid robot, pla#ed ping pong at 3oA#o I9 $KK.!KK

%ontrol s#stems ma# also have var#ing levels of autonom#.!. 6irect interaction is used for haptic or tele5operated devices, and the

human has nearl# complete control over the robotTs motion.$. :perator5assist modes have the operator commanding medium5to5high5

level tasAs, @ith the robot automaticall# figuring out ho@ to achieve them.

&. "n autonomous robot ma# go for extended periods of time @ithouthuman interaction. 8igher levels of autonom# do not necessaril# require morecomplex cognitive capabilities. >or example, robots in assembl# plants arecompletel# autonomous, but operate in a fixed pattern.

'. "nother classification taAes into account the interaction bet@een humancontrol and the machine motions.

!. 3eleoperation. " human controls each movement, each machine actuator change is specified b# the operator.

$. *upervisor#. " human specifies general moves or position changes andthe machine decides specific movements of its actuators.

&. 3asA5level autonom#. 3he operator specifies onl# the tasA and the robotmanages itself to complete it.

'. >ull autonom#. 3he machine @ill create and complete all its tasAs @ithouthuman interaction.

,o:otic S#rger;3he use of robotic devicesJe.g., Intuitive *urgicalQs 6a Finci s#stemJ@hichhave miniaturised cameras and precision lasers to conduct minimall# invasivesurgical proceduresJe.g., prostatectom#, c#stectom#, and man# other procedures. :ne surgeon sits at a console near the opened patient and has &56images of the site and manipulates laparoscopic tools @ith hand and foot

controls the second surgeon controls suction, exposure of the operative field,retraction and changes the robotQs tools2ros 2recision due to three5dimensional magnification, and device articulationbe#ond that of conventional surger#, miniaturization, smaller incisions,decreased blood loss, less pain, quicAer healing time%ons xpense each 6a Finci costs nearl# $ million( extra information)***.%cmag.com+enc!clo%edia+term+...+ robotic ,surg ..3"UD >9:= EIUI26I"

ctivities&!. Erite a summar# about it$. ;nderline the connectors

&.;nderline the ad1ectives'. Erite a glossar# about the most common terms related @ith robotics

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOPIO

http://robot/

http://pong/


http://technology/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleoperation

http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/.../

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOPIO

http://robot/

http://pong/


http://technology/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleoperation

http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/.../



re 8e on te :rin6 o% a ro:otics revol#tionP

3hatTs @hat numerous media outlets asAed last 6ecember @hen 0oogle

acquired eight robotics companies that specialize in such innovations as

manipulation, vision, and humanoid robots. "mong those acquisitions @as =I3 spinout =eAa 9obotics, co5founded b# "aron dsinger *= TK!, 2h6 TK/ and Geff Eeber, a former research engineer inthe %omputer *cience and "rtificial Intelligence Lab.>ounded in $KK-, =eAa @as an earl# creator of WcompliantW humanoid robotsthat no@ @orA safel# alongside humans in ever#da# environments 55 includingfactories and cramped research labs.?ased on the co5foundersT @orA at =I3, =eAaTs sleeA robotics hard@areincluded adult5size arms and hands, as @ell as heads, torsos, and full5bod#s#stems @ith advanced control innovations, such as spring5based *eries lastic "ctuators (*"s) that provide torque control and measurements at each 1oint. "ll of =eAaTs robots run off =eAa =& and 9obot :perating *#stem soft@are,@hich allo@ for real5time communication.2erhaps the compan# is most notable for its =! =obile =anipulator, a &'K,KKKrobotic humanoid that combines all of =eAaTs hard@are. 6esigned to lift andcarr# ob1ects, the =!Ts arms move smoothl# and are equipped @ith stronggrippers and @ith *"s that allo@ the arms to slo@ do@n upon human touch. "customizable pan5tilt head comes @ith a Uinect &56 camera, along @ith other digital cameras, for sensing ob1ects. Its base is an omnidirectional platform @itha mechanical lift that allo@s the torso to move verticall#.6ozens of researchers toda# use =eAaTs robotic hard@are and soft@are in labsaround the @orld for advanced robotics research. W3hese are hard@areplatforms for research labs to develop algorithms for mobile manipulation, socialrobotics, and human5robot interaction,W sa#s dsinger, @ho @as =eAaTs chief executive officer.0oogleTs other recent acquisitions have included =I3 spinout ?oston 6#namics,a militar# robot maAer, and 9ed@ood 9obotics, a 1oint venture bet@een =eAaand the robotics firms Eillo@ 0arage and *9I International.%o5founded b# dsinger, 9ed@ood 9obotics focused specificall# on refining

=eAaTs robot arms. ?ut it has greater aims of bringing manufacturing bacAstateside. W6esigning arms is part of the stor#, but the bigger product solution isto fulfill that vision,W sa#s dsinger, no@ a robotics director at 0oogle.Eith 0oogleTs acquisitions, dsinger believes that robotics innovation is on therise. W=# hope,W he sa#s, Wis that @eTre going to see as much energ# and effortpooled into robotics startups in the next !K #ears as @eTve seen in social mediain the last !K.Westetics and engineeringEhile the technolog# behind =eAaTs robots @as novel in the mid5$KKKs, @hatcontinued to set the compan# apart in a burgeoning robotics landscape W@as

designing robots on human scale that had a focus on aesthetic pacAaging,Wdsinger sa#s.

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3his is perhaps best sho@cased in =eAaTs *$ 8umanoid 8eads, designed @ithexpressive e#es and emotive ears. 3hese @ere used to build WsociableW robotsin collaboration @ith researchers across the nation.*imon, a robot co5developed b# =eAa and researchers at the 0eorgia Instituteof 3echnolog#, includes a =eAa humanoid head @ith !& degrees of freedom(6:>), including independentl# moving e#es and e#elids, movable ears, and afive56:> necA 55 @hich replicates a humanTs range of motion. It also conve#snonverbal cues through lifeliAe head motions, e#e contact, and blinAing.*imilar in specs is the Wdoe5e#ed,W red5haired 6reamer, a head incorporatedonto a robot co5developed b# =eAa and the ;niversit# of 3exas at "ustinTs8uman %entered 9obotics group 55 @hich also uses =eAaTs *"5basedcompliant arms. LiAe *imon, it had seven 6:>, @ith ears that curl and bend todispla# various emotions, such as confusion and understanding. Its e#es areequipped @ith cameras that tracA movements, and the head moves in @hatever direction the e#es do.3he aim of aesthetic designs for =!, *imon, 6reamer, and all the other =eAabots, dsinger explains, is to help maAe people feel Waffinit# and trustW to@ardrobots. ?ut itTs also inspired from the co5foundersT time as artists.>or five #ears before coming to =I3, dsinger (@ho holds a bachelorTs degree incomputer science from *tanford ;niversit#) and Eeber (a trained industrialdesigner) @ere visual artists in *an >rancisco, building anthropomorphic roboticsculptures for participation in theatrical performances.W"s artists @e valued aesthetics and design, and human interaction, and ho@these robotic s#stems relate to people,W dsinger sa#s. W3hatTs the mindset @e

came into =I3 @ith and learned the chops of engineering.WB#ilding :ots and a :#sinessIn =I3Ts 8uman 9obotics 0roup, then led b# professor and entrepreneur 9odne# ?rooAs (of i9obot and 9ethinA 9obotics fame), the co5founders built the6omo robot 55 @hich had $ active 6:>, sensors, *"5integrated arms, four digital cameras, and other innovations that allo@ed it to @orA safel# alongsidehumans. "fter graduating, and @hile serving as a postdoc in ?rooAsT lab, dsinger hadan unshaAable urge to launch a robotics compan#, W@here I could get out in the@orld and have an impact,W he sa#s.

Eithout a proper business plan, dsinger and Eeber relocated to *an>rancisco, carr#ing @hat the# learned building 6omo to found =eAa. " fe@quicA sales and contracts from researchers helped the compan# churn out itsfirst commercial robotic arm in about nine months.>rom there, =eAa sold parts an arm here, a hand there, a head, a torso, abase. ventuall#, =eAa started @orAing @ith the 6efense "dvanced 9esearch2ro1ects "genc#, building under@ater humanoid robots, exosAeletons, andprosthetics, among other things.WEe tooA an incremental bootstrapping approach,W dsinger sa#s. Wver# sale@ould finance the next iteration of engineering the robot. Ee sta#ed ver#

diligent, tr#ing to ensure that ever# little step for@ard could scale into a bigger opportunit#.W

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*oon, dsinger sa#s, the# built the entire =! =obile =anipulator, W@hichallo@ed for a higher sales price.W3his Wincremental bootstrappingW approach is something dsinger sa#s hesoaAed up from the business classes he tooA at the =I3 *loan *chool of =anagement. "nother lesson *urround #ourself @ith people better than #ou atdifferent aspects of technolog# and business. WIn robotics itTs particularl#important,W he sa#s, Wbecause itTs so multidisciplinar# #ou canTt possibl# cover all the bases. 3hatTs one bit of advice ITve taAen to heart over the #ears.W%ircling bacA to =eAaTs founding, dsinger sa#s the compan# launched initiall#to bring advanced robots to computer science labs. W"t the time,W he sa#s,Wthese labs could spend #ears building robotic s#stems to test roboticalgorithms, but the robots @ere ultimatel# unreliable.W?ut, he adds, =eAa @as ultimatel# a self5fulfilling pro1ect for t@o engineers andartists that happened to get big W9eall#, @e 1ust en1o#ed the hard engineeringand design and @anted to build cool stuff. 3his @as a fun @a# to do it.W

T3! O',5DXS I,ST BI'I "'!S $UB5ILondon 5 Ehen LuAe *A#@alAer received a perfect bionic replacement for the hand that @as cut off in *tar Ears pisode F, the idea of replicatinghuman organs and bod# parts seemed far5fetched. 3hirt# #ears later, theidea is no longer 1ust science fiction. *cientists, among them the creators of O9exP 5 the @orldTs most complete bionic man, unveiled in London this @eeA5 believe the# can no@ replicate about t@o5thirds of the human bod#. OEe@ere surprised ho@ man# of the parts of the bod# can be replaced,P said9ich EalAer, managing director of the robotics team *hado@, @ho built 9ex.

O3here are some vital organs missing, liAe the stomach, but -K to /K percentof a human has effectivel# been rebuilt. O3his is heralded, then, as the da@nof the age of bionic man 5 although specialists caution that @e are stillfeeling our @a#.

*ocial ps#chologist ?ertolt =e#er, @ho also @orAed on 9ex, has an interestingperspective he @as born @ithout his left hand and has a prosthesis. OI havelooAed for ne@ bionic technologies out of personal interest for a long time and IthinA that until five or six #ears ago nothing much @as happening,P he said.O*uddenl# @e are at a point @here @e can build a bod# that is great andbeautiful in its o@n special @a#.P Dot ever#one in the field believes the recent

progress, impressive as it is, places us on the road to complete replication of human limbs, organs and tissue. OEe have motors @hich can lift things but, if #ou @ant to mimic the dexterit# of a hand, @e are not there #et,P said 2rofessor *teven 8siao of the Gohn 8opAins ;niversit# in ?altimore.

OEhat @e are beginning to achieve is building prostheses @hich looA liAe humanbod# parts, but @e are a long @a# a@a# from maAing ones @hich rela# sensor#information the @a# the human bod# does.P 2rofessor 8siao dre@ thecomparison bet@een *tar Ears and real life, sa#ing O3he goal is the scene inthe film @here LuAe *A#@alAer gets his ne@ hand tested and is able to feel pain@e are not there. In !K #ears, @e @ill be able to build a robot @hich has the

dexterit# to picA up a pen and @rite @ith it, but it @ill not be able to send bacAsensor# information.P

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9ex, billed as the pinnacle of robotics achievement to date, @ill meet his publicat the *cience =useum in London. 6ubbed the =illion56ollar =an (thatTs ho@much he cost to maAe), he consists of a prosthetic face, hips, Anees, feet andhands, all of @hich are commerciall# available. :ther off5the5shelf items includean artificial retina, cochlea and heart.

9exTs other internal organs, among them a pancreas, a set of artificial lungs andbladder, are still in development. *ome of the technolog# cannot @orA @ithouthuman input bionic hands, for example, need muscles and signals from thebrain to function. :ther parts, such as the heart and pancreas, are designed to@orA on their o@n.

:ther bod# parts remain out of the reach of scientists. =r. EalAer sa#s O3heonl# artificial stomach @e have seen is ver# large and generates electricit#, so#ou couldnTt use it to replace a human stomach, but I am sure there are peoplein the regenerative medicine communit# @orAing on that.P

"nd replication of the human brain, the most complex structure Ano@n to man,@as not even on the radar, =r. EalAer said. O3his is a sho@case for prostheticparts, it sho@s exactl# @here @eTve got to in being able to replace parts of ahuman.P

?ertolt =e#er adds OITd sa# itTs highl# unliAel# that, in our lifetimes or in that of our grandchildren, @e @ill see a full# articulate human bod# @ith an artificialintelligence.P

=r. =e#er said there @ould be ethical issues surrounding prostheses if the#began to outperform human bod# parts. O*hould I be allo@ed to cut off m# realhand and replace it @ith something, does that gives me an unfair advantageover people @ho cannot afford thisB ITm not sa#ing that is going to happen butthese are questions that should be on the table before that technolog# becomesavailable.P

,eplacea:le parts&

#es Fideo cameras mounted on glasses pass data to electrodes placed onthe retina, @hich in turn send signals to the brain. 3he patient can learn to

interpret these shapes and patterns into images.

Lungs *till in the protot#pe stage, prosthetic lungs are designed to match theox#gen and carbon dioxide needs of a patient via surface5coated hollo@pol#mers.

8eart =ade of light, durable plastic and po@ered b# a @earable, batter#5po@ered driver, artificial hearts provide ample blood flo@ through both ventriclesand could reduce the need for pacemaAers.

Uidne# 3his small protot#pe removes toxins from the blood using nanoscale

filters. In #ears to come it is hoped it could help reduce the need for dial#sis.

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2ancreas "n algorithmic device liAened to a carQs 02* s#stem, it releasesinsulin in response to rising blood sugar levels. In the future, it is hoped thiscould replace traditional in1ections for 3#pe ! diabetes sufferers.

>eet 3hese reflexive prosthetic feet mimic the actions of the "chilles tendon via

springs that sense the anAleQs position, allo@ing the user to propel for@ard andrecreate the sensation of natural movement.

ars "n inner5ear implant @hich simulates nerve fibres processes signalscaptured b# a sound processor and rela#s them to the brain.

3rachea " foam5liAe structure consisting of tin# pores is used to produce anartificial @indpipe. In $K!!, the organ @as successfull# implanted in a cancer patient from *@eden.

*pleen 9esembling a flexible plastic @afer, this porous chip filters out

pathogens into a solution, cleaning infections. 3here are difficulties in modellingthe sequence of blood flo@ to each organ, but the ;* militar# hopes it couldeventuall# be used to treat sepsis in in1ured troops.

8ands 6urable aluminium frame@orA allo@s the user to perform hand gesturesand can be custom coloured to blend @ith sAin tones. 3he user can exertcorrect pressure in speed and grip via electrical signals.

"rms 3his prosthetic limb is capable of $- degrees of movement through silentjfrees@ingQ and ?luetooth communication for fine5tuning. "ctivated b# tin# burstsof electrical signals from muscles in the userQs stump, it can reach and grasp for an ob1ect at the same time.

?lood j2lastic bloodQ is a darA, hone#5liAe substance @hich has a longer shelf5life than donated blood and is immune to infection. >or no@ ho@ever, it remainsconfined to the experimental stages.

Description

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<#estions

!5 ) Ehat is a bionic manB

$5 ) Ehat is the name of the first bionic manB

&5 ) Ehat progress is in the bionic manB

'5 ) 8o@ to help the bionic in the medicineB

+5 ) Ehat t#pes of prosthetics are availableB

-5 ) Eh# the *tar Ears film is associated @ith the prostheticsB

/5 ) Ehat organs are still in developmentB

M5 ) Eh# is it difficult creating a prostheticsB

5 ) Eh# an artificial brain @ould not help the brutesB 3he government isinterestedB

!K5 ) Ehat about the artificial stomachB

!!5 ) Ehat is replaceable partsB

ctivit; 1 &Underline te connectors and tecnical 8ords

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re 8e on te :rin6 o% a ro:otics revol#tionP

3hatTs @hat numerous media outlets asAed last 6ecember @hen 0oogleacquired eight robotics companies that specialize in such innovations as

manipulation, vision, and humanoid robots.

"mong those acquisitions @as =I3 spinout =eAa 9obotics, co5founded b# "aron dsinger *= TK!, 2h6 TK/ and Geff Eeber, a former research engineer inthe %omputer *cience and "rtificial Intelligence Lab.>ounded in $KK-, =eAa @as an earl# creator of WcompliantW humanoid robotsthat no@ @orA safel# alongside humans in ever#da# environments 55 includingfactories and cramped research labs.?ased on the co5foundersT @orA at =I3, =eAaTs sleeA robotics hard@areincluded adult5size arms and hands, as @ell as heads, torsos, and full5bod#s#stems @ith advanced control innovations, such as spring5based *eries lastic "ctuators (*"s) that provide torque control and measurements at each 1oint. "ll of =eAaTs robots run off =eAa =& and 9obot :perating *#stem soft@are,@hich allo@ for real5time communication.2erhaps the compan# is most notable for its =! =obile =anipulator, a &'K,KKKrobotic humanoid that combines all of =eAaTs hard@are. 6esigned to lift andcarr# ob1ects, the =!Ts arms move smoothl# and are equipped @ith stronggrippers and @ith *"s that allo@ the arms to slo@ do@n upon human touch. "

customizable pan5tilt head comes @ith a Uinect &56 camera, along @ith other digital cameras, for sensing ob1ects. Its base is an omnidirectional platform @itha mechanical lift that allo@s the torso to move verticall#.6ozens of researchers toda# use =eAaTs robotic hard@are and soft@are in labsaround the @orld for advanced robotics research. W3hese are hard@areplatforms for research labs to develop algorithms for mobile manipulation, socialrobotics, and human5robot interaction,W sa#s dsinger, @ho @as =eAaTs chief executive officer.0oogleTs other recent acquisitions have included =I3 spinout ?oston 6#namics,a militar# robot maAer, and 9ed@ood 9obotics, a 1oint venture bet@een =eAa

and the robotics firms Eillo@ 0arage and *9I International.%o5founded b# dsinger, 9ed@ood 9obotics focused specificall# on refining=eAaTs robot arms. ?ut it has greater aims of bringing manufacturing bacAstateside. W6esigning arms is part of the stor#, but the bigger product solution isto fulfill that vision,W sa#s dsinger, no@ a robotics director at 0oogle.Eith 0oogleTs acquisitions, dsinger believes that robotics innovation is on the

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