E L O L V I D O E S T Á L L E N O D E M E M O R I A .

W R I T I N G H I S T O R Y O N T H E P I N O C H E T E R A

I N C H I L E : A C O M P A R I S O N O F D I S C O U R S E

B E T W E E N V I L L A G R I M A L D I , P A R Q U E P O R L A

P A Z A N D M U S E O D E L A M E M O R I A Y

D E R E C H O S H U M A N O S .

Thesis for a Master's degree in history

Else Van Den Heede

Reading committee: Dr. Bevernage B. (promotor), Dr. Brinkman I., Dra. Van De Mieroop K.

Schooljaar 2011 – 2012

2

3

E L O L V I D O E S T Á L L E N O D E M E M O R I A .

W R I T I N G H I S T O R Y O N T H E P I N O C H E T E R A

I N C H I L E : A C O M P A R I S O N O F D I S C O U R S E

B E T W E E N V I L L A G R I M A L D I , P A R Q U E P O R L A

P A Z A N D M U S E O D E L A M E M O R I A Y

D E R E C H O S H U M A N O S .

Thesis for a Master's degree in history

Else Van Den Heede

Reading committee: Dr. Bevernage B. (promotor), Dr. Brinkman I., Dra. Van De Mieroop K.

Schooljaar 2011 – 2012

4

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Writing this thesis has challenged me to push my limits in a literal and figurative way. During

my trip I found many support, encouragements and challenges. Since it is nearly impossible

to name all these supporters, encouragers and challengers, I would like to start with a general,

but not less heartfelt thank you. I would like to say a special thanks to my super(ad)visor

Berber Bevernage for guiding me, having confidence in me and especially for broadening my

horizons when challenging me to think outside the box. I would also like to thank my non-

official advisor Lore Colaert, for sharing her experiences and knowledge with me. Her

insights have certainly influenced the way I conducted my research. Although Carolina

Aguilera, member of the Villa Grimaldi Corporation, might not consider herself to by my

advisor, she gave me much food for reflection, and showed me her take on Chilean memory.

I definitely would like to thank my family, each for different reasons. I am so grateful to my

brother that he sacrificed two weeks of his vacation and travelled with me to the other side of

the world, just to make sure I would be save. I love my parents for the fact that they spend

hours reading drafts of my thesis, asking me questions to make sure I explained everything

the way I wanted to. I am thankful for all the times I did not have to think about what cook

and whether or not I would do the dishes. Although both of you took away some of my

worries, I know I have burdened you with mine. I truly hope I did not cause you too much

wrinkles or grey hairs. Your support means everything to me. Thank you.

5

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgments ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4

Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8

1. Theoretical outlines of the analysis --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13

1.1 Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13

1.2 Discourse analysis of the museum and its settings ------------------------------------------------------ 16

1.2.1 Location ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16

1.2.2 Architecture ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17

1.2.3 Colour -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19

1.2.4 Light ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20

1.3 Discourse analysis of language -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21

1.3.1 What is discourse analysis of language? ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 22

1.3.2 Critical discourse analysis --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23

1.3.3 How to analyse textual discourse? -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25

a. Introductory questions ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25

b. Framing --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26

c. Studying sentences ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26

d. The evaluation of words ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 27

e. Analysing another language ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 27

f. Body language ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28

g. Combining all elements ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28

1.4 Discourse analysis of images ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 29

1.4.1 Theories of visual communication ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30

a. Gestalt ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 30

b. Constructivism --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 31

c. Semiotics -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 31

d. Cognition ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 33

1.4.2 How to analyse images? ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 34

a. Personal perspective-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 34

b. Historical perspective ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 35

6

c. Technical perspective------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 35

d. Ethical perspective ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 36

e. Cultural perspective -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 36

f. Critical perspective ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37

2. Villa Grimaldi, Parque por la Paz ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 38

2.1 How it all began… ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 38

2.2 Discourse at Cartel Terranova --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41

2.2.1 Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41

2.2.2 Analysis of the museum and its settings ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 41

2.2.3 Discourse analysis of language ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 46

a. Introductory analysis ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 46

b. Framing --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 47

c. Studying sentences ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 49

d. Studying words ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 54

e. Analysing another language ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 58

f. Combining all elements -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 59

2.2.4 Discourse analysis of images ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 60

a. Personal perspective-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 61

b. Historical perspective ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 63

c. Technical perspective------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 64

d. Ethical perspective ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 67

e. Cultural perspective -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 70

f. Critical perspective ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 73

g. Combining all elements ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 75

2.3 Conclusion ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 76

3. Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos ------------------------------------------------------------------ 80

3.1 How it all began… ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 80

3.2 Discourse at Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos ------------------------------------- 81

3.2.1 Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 81

3.2.2 Analysis of the museum and its settings ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 81

3.2.3 Discourse analysis of language ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 86

7

a. Introductory analysis ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 86

b. Framing --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 88

c. Studying sentences ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 91

d. Studying words ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 95

e. Analysing another language ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 99

f. Combining all elements -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 99

3.2.4 Discourse analysis of images --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 100

a. Personal perspective------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 101

b. Historical perspective --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 103

c. Technical perspective---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 105

d. Ethical perspective -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 108

e. Cultural perspective ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 111

f. Critical perspective -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 113

g. Combining all elements ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 114

3.3 Conclusion --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 115

Conclusion ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 119

Nederlandstalige samenvatting -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 122

Bibliography --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 127

Literatuur ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 127

Bronnen ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 135

andere ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 135

Corporación Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz ------------------------------------------------------------------- 136

Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos ---------------------------------------------------------------- 137

Website -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 138

Andere ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 138

Corporación Parque por la Paz Villa Grimaldi ------------------------------------------------------------------- 139

Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos ---------------------------------------------------------------- 140

Appendix --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 142

Appendix 1: Museum Logos ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 142

Appendix 2: Blueprint and architecture --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 143

8

INTRODUCTION

Life has taught me that most of us are victims of our

prejudices, of preconceived ideas, of false concepts of who is

our ‘enemy’ or what is ‘alien’ to us, caused by our

environment and, above all, by the mass media to which we

are subject. But it has also taught me that these barriers are

artificial ones and can be swept away.

- Joan Jara1 -

The Cold War is more than a conflict between America and Russia from 1945 until 19912. It

set the conditions for the phenomenon known as the ‘Dirty Wars’ in Latin America3. The ideas

of social justice, revolution and equality found their way throughout the Latin American

continent during the 1960s and 1970s. Analogous to the ideology of the Cold War, antagonists

of these socialist ideas succeeded in overthrowing the socialist/communist countries, often by

force. Countries like Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Ecuador and Bolivia endured these Dirty

Wars.

The Chilean Dirty War started with the election of a socialist government under president

Salvador Allende, leader of the Unidad Popular in 19704. On September 11, 1973 General

Augusto Pinochet Ugarte committed a coup which divided Chile even to this day. During his

17 year reign, Pinochet silenced every form of criticism. Disappearances, censorship and

1 Joan Jara - Victor Jara, an unfinished song – Bloomsbury – London – 1983 – p. vii 2 R. R. Palmer, Joel Colton, Lloyd Kramer – A history of the modern world, since 1815 – McGraw-Hill –

New York – 2007 – p. 1057 3 The term ‘Dirty War’ was originally given to the war in Argentina between 1976 and 1983. Junta

officers claimed they fought a new kind of war in which the enemy remained hidden and used guerrilla

tactics. The only way to win this war was by using ‘dirty’ and unconventional tactics. The name ‘dirty

war’ derived from this idea. Since, this term has applied to neighbouring dictatorships in Chile,

Paraguay, Uruguay, Brazil and Bolivia. In contemporary terminology ‘dirty war’ is used for any country

where state-sponsored repression occurred.

Paul H. Lewis – Guerrillas and generals: the “Dirty War” in Argentina – Praeger Publishers – Westport –

2002 – p. 2

David R. Kohut & Olga Vilella – Historical dictionary of the “Dirty Wars” second edition – Scarecrow

Press, inc. – Maryland – 2010 – p. ix 4 Victoria Baxter – “Civil Society Promotion of Truth, Justice, and Reconciliation in Chile: Villa

Grimaldi” – in: Peace and Change – January 2005 – p.121

9

torture created collective fear for almost two decades. International critique grew significantly

until the general could no longer ignore it. Convinced he had enough supporters, he

organized a referendum in 19885. He lost narrowly from a unified opposition6. In 1990 Patricio

Aylwin became the first democratically chosen president of Chile after a long period of

human right violations.

Although the transition to democracy seemed complete, Chilean society was far from

unified7. Stories told by victims and their relatives about violence and torture stood in sharp

contrast with stories of unified Pinochetistas 8 . The former asked for truth and justice

surrounding the human rights violations committed during the dictatorship, while the latter

denied any violations occurred. The new government basically inherited a poisoned chalice

concerning the memory of the Pinochet era.

In a first attempt to unify the Chilean people, president Aylwin established a truth

commission, one of the few possibilities within the circumstances since Pinochet and his

proponents kept a lot of power9. The commission was assigned to research disappearance and

5 Hernaldo Muñoz – The Dictator’s Shadow, Life under Pinochet – Basic Books – New York – 2008 – p.

215 6 The unification of the opposition was the result of a struggle. The communist party initially refused to

take part in an agreement with 16 other parties. They did not want to play a game according to the

rules Pinochet introduced. In February 1988 the unification was completed.

The strength of the opposition was the result of 3 main positions. First the opposition argued that only

40% of the Chilean people benefited from the economic system constituted by Pinochet. Secondly, the

opposition focused on the human rights violations and records. Because it was generally known, these

human rights violations played only a little role in the results of the election. The third and last

position however, was the most decisive. Chilean people wanted to return to their democratic

background. These 3 statements of the opposition proved successful.

Alan Angell – Chile since 1958 – in: Leslie Bethell ed. – Chile, since independence – Cambridge

University Press – Cambridge – 1993 – p. 195-197 7 Michael J. Lazzara – Chile in transition, the poetics of politics of memory – University Press of Florida

– Gainesville – 2011 p. 1 8 Pinochetistas is a term used for proponents of General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte.

Steve J. Stern – Reckoning with Pinochet, The memory question in democratic Chile, 1989-2006 – Duke

University Press – Durham – 2010 – p. 106 9 In 1978 Pinochet passed an amnesty law, which prevented prosecution of any violations that had

occurred during the dictatorship. When it became clear, Pinochet would no longer be president, he took

other measures to reinsure his power. He passed an electoral law, which gave the right wing an

overrepresentation in congress and he passed an armed forces law which made it difficult for the

president to interfere with the army. Conveniently, since Pinochet remained Commander-in-Chief of

10

torture which resulted in death10. The idea was to reconcile the Chilean people so that they

could turn the page and leave the past behind them. Since the commission only revealed part

of the past and had no judiciary power, left offenders anonymous and did not recognize living

torture victims, most Chilean people remained living in the past11.

In 1994 the newly elected president Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle chose to focus on economic

growth and progress12. His intention was to move farther away from the traumatic past, while

honouring that same past. Since this tactic only led to a status quo, Ricardo Lagos, president

since the 2000 elections, set up a new truth commission that would treat torture victims who

survived13. This proposal fitted within the idea of silent justice14. President Lagos, like former

president Aylwin, wanted to close the door of the past. The final report of the commission

however was again regarded as incomplete. Many requests of victims were denied so they

were not mentioned in the report and therefor they were not entitled to any compensation15.

Since a large portion of victims was still left out, the door of the past still could not be closed.

The work of this commission restarted in 2010 at the request of President Michelle Bachelet,

the army until 1997. After fulfilling his job as Commander-in-Chief, Pinochet became senator for life,

which gave him judicial immunity. Alongside these developments in Chile, president Aylwin took into

account the events in neighbouring country Argentina. There riots had erupted after the prosecution of

a number of military leaders.

Angell – Chile since 1958 - p. 197

Eric Brahm – The Chilean truth and reconciliation commission – in beyond intractability.org – Guy

Burgess, Heidi Burgess eds.- university of Colorado – July 2005

http://beyondintractability.colorado.edu/case_studies/Chilean_Truth_Commission.jsp - consulted on May

6, 2012

Macarena Gómez-Barris – Witness Citizenship: The place of Villa Grimaldi in Chilean Memory – in

Sociological Forum 25.1 – 2010 – p. 39 10 Brian Loveman, Elizabeth Lira – Truth, justice, reconciliation, and impunity as historical themes:

Chile 1814-2006 – in Radical History Review – 2007 – p. 62 11 Ibid. - p. 61 12 Stern – Reckoning with Pinochet - p. 149 13 Cath Collins – Post-transitional justice: human rights trials in Chile and El Salvador – The

Pennsylvania State University Press – Philadelphia – 2010 p. 90-91 14 Loveman, Lira - Truth, justice, reconciliation, and impunity as historical themes - p. 66 15 Alexis Lynn Howe – Rethinking disappearance in Chilean Post-coup narratives – Minnesota

(unpublished doctorate University of Minnesota) – promoter: Dr. Ana Forcinito – 2011 – p. 21

11

showing that the uneven process of remembering a violent past can linger on for many

years16.

Notwithstanding the past is still present, the truth commissions did solve some problems

concerning memory. No Chilean could deny any longer that human rights violations had

occurred during the dictatorship and the question whether a person was for or against

Pinochet no longer seemed important17. The focus had shifted to the different discursive

methods which are used to construct recollections about the violent past.

Memories of the Pinochet years stay none the less multiple and complex. In this study I

attempt to disentangle part of this complex memory by exploring two narratives, written in

different alphabets18. One is created by the government in imitation of the findings of the

truth commissions, while the other is created by victims of torture and their relatives. I

consider the Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos a representation of the public

discourse, while Villa Grimaldi, Corporación Parque por la Paz embodies the vision of the

victims. My intention is to lay bare differences in creation, word usage, motivation and

translation to the public to see how memory can be moulded to fit different visions of dealing

with a violent past.

In the first part I explain how I built my theoretical framework. Not only do I believe that

every memory question needs its own personalized structure to grasp as much aspects as

possible of the studied society, but I also follow the advice Primo Levi gave us: “This scant

reliability of our memories will be satisfactorily explained only when we know in what

language, in what alphabet they are written, on what surface and with what pen…”. By

making my method of analysing the discourse transparent, I hope to encourage people to

pick up the memory debate and to form their own ideas. In a second and third part I apply

this theoretical framework to the chosen study objects, being Villa Grimaldi, Corporación

Parque por la Paz and Museo de la Memoria y Derechos Humanos. I vet the individual

16 Eva Salinas – Bachelet reopens Chile’s torture file – in: The Santiago Times – January 6, 2010 17 Lazzara – Chile in transition, the poetics of politics of memory - p. 12 18 Ibid.

12

museums in the areas of genesis, language discourse, image discourse and other possible

discourses such as architecture, illumination and colour.

Since museum studies are already well established in the research community, one could

think this investigation is unnecessary or irrelevant. However viewing a museum in its

entirety as a historical source is less common and only got a firm basis in 2010 with the

Eunamus project19. My research can, to a certain level, be compared to the Eunamus project

given that my sources are relatively similar. Even discourse analysis is fairly well established

within the historical inquiry. Nevertheless even here I try to break through the boundaries by

not only focusing on the discourse in written language, but also the discourse of images,

architecture, layout and so on. It is the interaction between all these elements combined with

the intrigue memory question that fascinates me and has driven me to write this essay.

19 Eunamus stands for European national museums: Identity politics, the uses of the past and the

European citizen. The project, led by Professor Peter Aronsson of the Linköping University in Sweden,

is financed by the European Commission and has the purpose of researching how nationalities are

formed or kept alive through national museums in Europe. The results of this research will be

published at the end of January 2013.

Eunamus – Project – in: http://www.eunamus.eu/project/project.html - consulted on 12.05.2012

13

1. THEORETICAL OUTLINES OF THE ANALYSIS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

What, then, is interesting and essential in art is the

spontaneous ability the artist has of enabling us to see his

way of seeing the world – not just the world as if the

painting were like a window, but the world as given by him.

- Arthur C. Danto20 -

The most basic and also the most essential question which one can ask about history, is

whether or not we can know the times gone by. The emergence of conscious knowledge

indeed went hand in hand with the emergence of doubt21. Is there such thing as certain

knowledge? To this day, that question remains. Within this debate, three large lines are drawn.

On the one hand there are the sceptics, who can be divided into hard and soft sceptics; on the

other hand there are what I call believers.

The hard-core sceptics or anti-realists believe history cannot be known22. Historians have,

according to those cynics, no exact scientific way of proving their theories, and therefore they

cannot prove the absolute truth about the past. Postmodernists argue for example that the

distinction between history and fiction is almost non-existent, because historical knowledge is

uncertain23. Henry Ford with his statement ‘history is bunk’ can be seen as one of the best

known proponents of this form of scepticism24.

On the other side of the spectrum are the realists. They believe facts constructed from sources,

reflect reality as it once was25. This statement finds ground on the belief that reality and the

truth about that reality, are what they are, independently of our cognition of them. The

20 Arthur C. Danto – The transfiguration of the Commonplace – Harvard University Press – Cambridge

- 1981 – p. 207 21 Chris Lorenz – De constructive van het verleden – Uitgeverij Boom – Amsterdam – 2008- p. 21 22 Ibid. 23 Christopher Butler – Postmodernism: a very short introduction – Oxford University Press – Oxford –

2002 – p.32 24 Lorenz – De constructive van het verleden - p. 21 25 Caleb Miller – Realism, antirealism, and common sense – in: Realism and antirealism – William P.

Alston (ed.) – Cornell University Press – New York – 2002 – p.13

14

prominent German historian Leopold von Ranke, can be counted as a realist considering he

calls upon people to write history ‘wie es eigentlich gewesen ist’26.

Any positions between these two extremes are variations on mild scepticism, also designated

with the term anti-realism. Micheal Dummett, a British philosopher, changed from being a

hard-core sceptic in 1978 to a softer anti-realist27. His theory of meaning was originally based

on the idea of mathematical proof. Consequently non-mathematical statements could never

be true if no direct verification could be provided. In 2004 however, Dummett stated that a

non-mathematical indirect statement could be true as long as there was sufficient observable

evidence. Therefore historical statements could be considered as valid.

The most fundamental questions in this discussion are indeed the questions about the

underlying ideas and issues28. For instance, is a statement about the past true based on what

happened or based on the remaining evidence and sources from the past? According to

Charles Peirce, who believes in the consensus theory of truth, the only structure in reality is

created by the community of researchers when they come to an agreement about a certain

conviction29. Jürgen Habermans and William James agree with him30. Therefore evidence or

sources are an important part of history.

The realism – anti-realism controversy is also reflected in language theory, although the

latter are in this case called pragmatists. Linguistic realists believe that the core of language

can capture and represent the world as it is, while the pragmatists trust language is a

gathering of social behaviour. Which language one uses is therefore dependent of the context

and circumstances.

26 Marc Boone – Een inleiding tot de historische kritiek – Academia Press – Gent – 2007 – p. 102 27 Murray Murphey – Realism about the past – in: Aviezer Tucker (ed.) – A companion to the

philosophy of history and historiography – Blackwell Publishing Ltd. – Chichester – 2009 – p. 186 28 Chiel van den Akker – Beweren en tonen. Waarheid, taal en het verleden – Nijmegen – (unpublished

doctorate Raboud University of Nijmegen – promotor Rector Magnificus Prof. Mr. S.C.J.J. Kortmann) –

2008 – p. 3 29 Erik Weber – Kennis ontrafeld. Vijftien hedendaagse filosofen over wetenschap, ethiek en metafysica

– Garant – Antwerpen-Apeldoorn – 2005 – p. 20-21 30 Ibid. – p. 32, 63

15

I agree with Chiel van den Akker that the realistic view on language and images is not

defensible 31 . Historians show the past by using historical sources to create a general

hypothesis about humans and their world. These propositions are quite conventional because

they show how people might behave in a certain situation given the likelihood of the

circumstances. The introductory quote of Danto fits very well with this idea, except for the

fact that a historian is bound by the limitations of his sources.

In my own inquiry however, I do not use sources or artefacts from the past. I take a closer

look at the findings of other historians. One of the objects of my research is indeed that

similar historical sources of the same traumatic event may lead to different results, depending

on the context of the researcher or the ideas and strategies of an exhibition designer, willing

to display this traumatic past. Then again I am convinced the outlines of the story remain the

same, but different nuances are created through use of words, images, colour... Consequently,

I do not believe that Charles Pierce’s consensus theory of truth has yet been reached in Chile.

Ann-Louise Shapiro wonders whose memories will prevail, especially since history transcends

the boundaries of the academic world under the influence of a broader historical turn32.

Different kinds of histories live side by side and allow us to think simultaneously about their

meanings in the present. Since there are no clear protocols about adequate or appropriate

forms for narrating particular pasts, the historical narrative is not a finished story but rather a

dynamic project where different and sometimes contradictory historical narratives can

intertwine. Through my research I try to make the historical narrative of museums

transparent. However, non-communicated intentions of the exhibition designer are not taken

into account. The average visitor has usually no access to such information; therefore it

cannot have any influence on the perception of the visitor.

In the rest of this chapter, I discuss various elements that are part of the narrative of a

museum. My research method thus becomes more transparent and different influences are

given the opportunity to come to life.

31 Chiel van den Akker – Beweren en tonen. – p. 6-7 32 Ann-Louise Shapiro - Whose (Which) History is it Anyway? – in: History and Theory. Theme Issue 36:

Producing the Past: Making Histories Inside and Outside the Academy - Vol. 36 - Nr. 4 – 1997 – p. 1-2

16

1.2 DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF THE MUSEUM AND ITS SETTINGS

Travelling is almost like talking with those of other centuries, René Descartes once said. I

believe that a lot of people have the same feeling when they visit a museum and go nosing in

another world or reality. What those people often do not realise, is that they look at a

contemporary representation of what researchers believe to be the past33. How that knowledge

is created or how one seeks to represent the bits and pieces of the past, is generally less known.

One could mistakenly think that the narrative and discourse of a museum is only hidden in

words and images. Yet, architecture, location, colour and light also help creating it34. In what

follows, I take a closer look at these elements to explain how they can help formulating a

certain discourse. I also explain how I have incorporated these elements in my research.

1.2.1 LOCATION

Location as a topic is often quickly handled in museum studies. However, it is my humble

opinion, that location can be a determining factor for the narrative. Accessibility, for instance

can be influential35. A museum situated in the centre of a big city is more likely to be visited,

then a museum in the periphery. I believe in that in the first case, the museum will take

greater account of a number of foreign tourists. Therefor the discourse is probably held quite

generally so all visitors can follow the exhibited and empathize more easily with the proposed

conceptual narrative. Conversely, when a museum is situated more in the suburbs or cannot

easily be reached, the discourse is often more focused and specified. Probably because the

people who know the whereabouts of the museum and who want to travel the distance, are

generally more interested in that which is displayed. Nevertheless, sometimes focused

museums can be found in main cities and easily accessible places. Presumable, this may be

33 Stephanie Moser – The devil is in the detail: museum displays and the creation of knowledge –

Museum Anthropology – vol. 33 – nr. 1 – p. 22 34 Ibid. p. 22-32 35 Ibid. p. 24

Peter Aronsson & Gabriella Elgenius – Making national museums in Europe, a comparative approach –

in: Peter Aronsson & Gabriella Elgenius (eds) - EuNaMus Report No 1 - Building National Museums in

Europe 1750-2010. Conference proceedings from EuNaMus, European National Museums: Identity

Politics, the Uses of the Past and the European Citizen, Bologna 28-30 April 2011- Linköping University

– p. 8

17

connected to the history of the location or can be the result of a competition between different

institutions.

Another component of location is what Suzanne Macleod calls ‘sense of place’36. Sense of place

links the history of the location to the present feeling and function of it. Isis Brook, a British

philosopher, explains sense of place as follows:

“A place that tells its story, where the layers of past history are evident, and preferably not

consciously preserved, is one that expresses a spirit of place. The present configuration of

land, houses, ruins, and so on, is still working and connected to its past in a meaningful way.

There is a diachronic integrity (…) about the place: what is here now makes sense given what

was here; it has a coherent narrative that connects its past to its present and could guide its

future. Of course, just having a past would not count; everywhere has a past simply by virtue

of being in space through time. If this notion is to elucidate spirit of the place and consolidate

its meaning, there must be significance placed on the coherence of the story and its working

connection to the present.37”

In my research I will treat accessibility and sense of place with consideration and depth. The

questions surrounding accessibility will be combined with detailed data on visitor numbers.

Questions about the sense of place are mostly embodied in the history of both museums and

will therefore only be studied in an indirect way. Nevertheless, all this information will lead

us to a conclusion about the influence of location in the discourse of the surveyed museums.

1.2.2 ARCHITECTURE

Looks can be deceiving and when visiting a museum. The architecture is one of the first

features a visitor sees and appraises. Even in this first encounter the visitors come in contact

with a part of the applied discourse of the museum. Architectural theory often compares

36 Suzanne Macleod – Towards an ethics of museum architecture – in: Janet Marstine ed. – Routledge

companion to museum ethics: redefining ethics for the twenty-first-century museum – Routledge –

New York – 2011 – p. 384 37 Isis Brook – Can ‘spirit of place’ be a guide to ethical building? – in: Fox Warwick – Ethics and the

built environment – Routledge – London – 2000 – p. 142-143

18

architectural forms with a linguistic system38. The elements of this system act like language

and help create identity. Older architectural elements, for instance, help create power and

authority, while modern elements create a contemporary feel and make visitors believe the

museum challenges tradition39.

In addition to the exterior architectural elements, the interior architectural elements are

defined by space. Space is not just about the size and surface of the inside, but it is also about

the movement of visitors. Interior designers meticulously plan the sequence of objects in an

exhibition because every display contributes an important element to the larger story 40 .

Although research shows designers rarely succeed in creating consistent attracting power and

direction in an exhibition, the importance of context and consecution is still emphasized by

prominent thinkers such as Hume, Piaget and Jenkins41. One of the ways in which designers

create attraction and direction is by constructing primary and secondary exhibition areas

through the use of light, colour and layered displays42 . Another designer trick to create

38 Palmyre Pierroux & Synne Skjulstad – Composing a public image online: art museums and

narratives of architecture in web mediation – in: Computers and Composition – Elsevier – 2011 – p. 2 39 Moser – The devil is in the detail p. 24 40 John H. Falk & Lynn D. Dierking – The museum experience – Whalesback Books – Washington –

1992 – p.69 41 Ibid. p. 68, 112

Jenkins describes the need for context in his article ‘Remember that old theory of memory: well forget

it’ as follows: “What is remembered in a given situation depends upon the physical and psychological

context in which the event was experienced, the knowledge and skills that the subject brings to the

context, the situation in which we are asking for evidence of remembering and the relation of what the

subject remembers to what the experimenter demands…memory is not a box in a flow diagram.”

Hume’s use of the term context, however, is much more explicit in his book ‘A treatise of human

nature’. “When I oppose the Imagination to the memory, I mean the faculty, by which we form our

fainter ideas. When I oppose it to reason, I mean the same faculty, excluding only our demonstrative

and probable reasonings. When I oppose it to neither, it is indifferent whether it be taken in the larger

or more limited sense, or at least the context will sufficiently explain the meaning.”

Jenkins J.J. – Remember that old theory of memory: well forget it – in: American Psychologist – nr. 29 –

1974 – p. 793

David Hume – A treatise of human nature – in: The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Treatise of Human

Nature, by David Hume – op: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/4705/4705-h/4705-h.htm#2H_4_0029 –

consulted on 24.06.2012 – part 3 – sect. IX – Footnote 7 42 Layering display areas is more than changing height and levels. The materials in which these exhibit

tables are made help define different time labels. Wooden cabinets can grant objects more age and

prestige. Therefor the wood makes the objects more curious. Modern steel and iron cabinets on the

other hand, rejuvenate the substances and bring them more to the present.

Moser – The devil is in the detail - p. 25-26

19

attraction is to play with different dimensions in the exhibition spaces. While larger areas emit

authority and importance, smaller areas emphasize intimacy and scale of viewing. Therefore

the bigger picture is often displayed in the largest halls, while the smaller spaces allow

visitors to appreciate subplots and personal stories in a more intimate and private atmosphere.

Museums use physical space in creative ways, Falk and Dierking said43. Therefore the analysis

of architectural discourse should be incorporated in my research. Following questions will

help me examine the architectural elements: Does the architecture add integrity and

authority to the museum? Is there a contrast between the style of the building and the

exhibits or do they complement each other? Do certain architectural elements exist that

present the content of the exhibition or accentuate it? Is the inside of the museum divided in

primary and secondary display areas? How are visitors guided through the museum? Are

there different types and sizes of rooms? Do visitors see all the displays at a glance or are

some displays concealed to enhance their impact? Although architectural influences are often

neglected in historical discourse research, I shall follow the trends of sociology and art history

by discussing this narrative separately in my analysis.

1.2.3 COLOUR

When I see a colour or hear a sound, I am aware of something, and not of nothing, Charles

Dunbar Broad, an English philosopher once said. Colour scientists agree with him as they

research any component of colour: the strength, the illumination, the emotion, the association

and even the effect on health and performance44. Colour can thus be a key opponent in

museum displays.

Colour can give meaning to an exhibition, for instance by linking a certain shade to a certain

historical period45. At first sight, this seems to have little to do with the discourse of the

museum. Nonetheless when one combines the emotional feelings of those colours to a

43 Falk & Dierking – The museum experience– p.112 44 Ruth Johnston-Feller – Color science in the examination of museum objects. Nondestructive

procedures – Conservation Institute – Santa Monica CA – 2001

Jonathan Ratliff – The exploration of color theory in museum education using works found in the J.B.

Speed Museum’s collection – Louisville – (unpublished thesis University of Louisville) – 2009 45 Moser – The devil is in the detail – p. 26

20

historical period, part of the discourse becomes visible. Red in an achievement context is

usually associated with danger46. Hence, it is not surprising that all communist countries in

the western world are correlated with red. Elliot and Maier, however emphasize that colour

has different implications for feelings, thoughts and behaviours in different contexts47. Since

use of colour in museums is often only focused on the artwork and not on the influence in the

discourse, one must be careful drawing conclusions about shades and their emotional

connotation in a museum context.

Although no clear conclusions can be drawn about the emotional values of colours, colours

can have an effect on the narative in another way. Bright colours attract the attention of

visitors and lure them to the objects exhibited there. Dark coloured areas are, after all, less

inviting then coloured ones48. Not only do the shades underline the pressure points of an

exhibition, but they also guide the visitors by dint of the creation of barriers. In a way visitors

are engaged to the discourse of the museum trough colour. I engage to colour in my own

research by asking follow questions49: Is there a particular colour chosen in order to reveal a

response from visitors or is it merely used as background? Is the colour choice a general trend

in the museum design or is the design only contemporary and based on the nature of the

represented topic? Are there any emotions connected to the chosen colour? Which objects are

highlighted by colour and what is their story?

1.2.4 LIGHT

Light is a key interactive tool in museum language and its function within the discourse

analysis is very similar to the functions of colour. Gyorgy Konrad said that you have to darken

at the time when the light is the most festive. Highlighting exhibits is exactly that, because

one object is elevated to a higher status50. That one illuminated object draws the visitor’s

attention in a darkened room; consequently the object forces a form of respect. Similar to

46 Andrew J. Elliot & Markus A. Maier – Color and Psychological Functioning – in: Association for

Psychological Science – vol. 16 – nr. 5 – p. 251 47 Ibid. 48 Gary Edson, David Dean – The handbook for museums – Routledge – London – 1994 – p. 56 49 Moser – The devil is in the detail - p. 26 50 Moser – The devil is in the detail – p. 26

21

colour, well exposed areas attract visitors and may even lead them through the museum while

showing the most important objects. However, sometimes the opposite is true. Poorly lit

rooms can also create a sense of wonderment, given that very old objects can be damaged

considerably by too strong and incorrect light51.

Light, similar to colour, can affect the atmosphere or feel of the exposition. In the previous

paragraph I have already mentioned that strength of light can influence the attractiveness of

an object or even the aura. In addition, different types of light can also determine the

atmosphere of an exhibition. For instance, there is a difference between natural light, which

illuminates different objects at different times of day in different ways, and electric light,

which is more easily manipulated by mankind52. Electric lights can be divided in the group of

warm, more orange kinds of lights and the cool or blue kinds of lights. Whatever kind of light

is used, it is certain that the perception, understanding and feeling of an object is crucially

affected by the character of the light falling on it. The following questions will therefore be

answered53: What type of lighting arrangement is provided in the museum? What effects do

artificial and natural light have on the objects and their appearance? What type of lights is

used in the museum? Are particular objects or groups of objects created through lighting

strategies? Does the light lend a particular interpretation of the displays?

1.3 DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF LANGUAGE

Words mean more than what is set down on paper.

It takes the human voice to infuse them with

shades of deeper meaning.

- Maya Angelou54 -

51 Christopher Cuttle – Light for art’s sake, lighting for artworks and museum displays – Butterworth-

Heinemann – Oxford – 2007 – p. 7 52 Timothy Ambrose & Crispin Paine – Museum basics, 3th edition – Routledge – New York – 2012- p.

136 53 Moser – The devil is in the detail – p. 26 54 Joni Wilson – The voice of success. A woman’s guide to a powerful and persuasive voice – AMACOM

– New York – 2009 – p. 206

22

According to hermeneutics historians work with meaningful and valuable phenomena of

which the meaning should be interpreted55. These elucidations are twofold; on the one hand

they are related to a person’s actions, on the other hand to expressions of language.

Philosophers of the twentieth century were especially interested in the issues surrounding the

meaning of words56. The theory that believes words mean nothing more than what they refer

to is now obsolete57. Gottlob Frege, a German philosopher developed a theory which focused

on the concept of sense. Sense is more than a reference and more than a mental

implementation of a word. It is a collection of characteristics that connect that particular word

to its referent. Nevertheless, the criticism on his theory grew increasingly. How is meaning

shared within a language community if sense is defined by each individual person? How is

sense imposed on people? How does Frege explain examples of two different references that

share the same sense58? Text interpretation is, thus, anything but simple or apparent. Different

theories and opinions co-exist, but the question remains which elements and philosophies are

the most useful for this research?

1.3.1 WHAT IS DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF LANGUAGE?

People communicate with each other through the use of texts59. Texts however are more than

sounds, words and sentences. They are also the combination of intentions, situations, speeches,

writings, gestures and so on60. Discourse analysis embraces these texts by combining semiotic

aspects of communication with linguistic choices and their organisation into significant

arrangements. Text and context are therefore combined within the discourse analysis.

55 Lorenz – De constructive van het verleden - p. 78 56 David Papineau (ed.) – Filosofie. Gids voor de wereld van het kritisch denken – Uitgeverij Ten Have –

Kampen – 2004 – p. 56 57 Ibid. p. 57 58 Ibid. p. 58 59 Alexandra Georgapoulou & Dionysis Goutsos – Discourse analysis. An introduction. 2nd edition –

Edingbrugh University Press – Edingbrugh – 2007 – p. 1 60 Georgapoulou & Goutsos – Discourse analysis. p. 2

23

Marianne JØrgensen and Louise Phillips define discourse as ‘a particular way of talking about

and understanding the world (or an aspect of the world).61’

However, it must be said, that there are different views on what discourse analysis is and how

it can be situated in social or cultural settings62. Cazden, for instance divides discourse analysis

into two groups. One focusses on the natural occurrence of language, while the other focusses

on different ways of talking and understanding. Fairclough on the other hand divides them

into a more textual orientated discourse and a social theoretical orientated discourse.

Nevertheless he advocates a combination of both and Cameron and Kulick agree with him.

Namely discourse analysis should be a combination of looking at patterns of organization

across text and the significance or actions that discourse extracts from the social, cultural and

relational environment of people63.

1.3.2 CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Critical discourse analysis is a form of communication analysis that claims to critically

investigate social inequality, dominance, sources of power and bias as it is articulated,

established, justified et cetera through speech64. Similarly it believes discourse is not only

socially composed but also socially conditioned 65 . In other means, they shape situations,

institutions and social structures, but at the same time the discourse is affected by the same

things they help shape. According to Phillips there is a consensus that critical discourse

analysis is not a method of discourse analysis per se, but rather a means to relate textual

61 Marianne JØrgensen & Louise Phillips – Discourse analysis as theory and method – SAGA

Publications Ltd. – London – 2002 – p. 1 62 Brian Paltridge – Discourse analysis – Continuum International Publishing Group – London – 2012 –

p.8 63 Ibid. p.19-20 64 Ruth Wodac – Critical linguistics and critical discourse analysis – in: J. Verschueren, J.O. Östman, J.

Blommaert (eds.) – Handbook of Pragmatics. Manual – Amsterdam – p. 204

Jaffer Sheyholislami – Critical Discourse Analysis. Excerpts from master thesis – Carleton University –

Ottowa – Canada – 2001 – in: http://www.carleton.ca/~jsheyhol/cda.htm - consulted on 31.06.2012 – p. 1 65 Annelies Verdoolaege – Reconciliation discourse. Discourse approaches to politics, society and

culture – John Benjamins Publishing Company – Amsterdam/Philadelphia – 2008 – p. 43

24

analysis to the social and political context under study66 . The analysis is an interpretive

reading of how language-in-use, in whatever form, reflects socio-political relations.

Critical discourse analysis tries to avoid clear cut presumptions, very much in contrast with

the ingenuously correlated context variables and independent language system of pragmatics

and traditional sociolinguistics67. According to Van Dijk, any critical discourse analysis should

start with the examination of the historical, political and social context68. Consequently, the

participating groups, power relations and conflicts should be analysed. Van Dijk believes that

the relationship between the levels of text production and their relationship to their social

context should be investigated on a microstructural and macro structural level 69 . The

microstructural level contains all the coherence elements such as propositions, semantic

relations, syntactic and rhetorical elements, while the macro structural level takes a closer

look at the themes and topics. After identifying the positive and negative opinions one can

make clear the assumed and implied70. To finish Van Dijk proposes to inspect all formal

structures like lexical choices.

However, critical discourse analysis cannot be summarised into this single approach. Wodak’s

research, for instance is very different from Van Dijk’s work71. Wodak focuses more on the

historical contexts of discourse by integrating thoroughly all available background

information. Since social processes are dynamic, she believes that this dynamic aspect should

be incorporated in the theory and methodology 72 . Many layers of texts (individual,

institutional, intertextual…) are thus, included into the interpretation. Therefor I agree with

Annelies Verdoolaege that there are as many critical discourse approaches as there are

66 Linda M. Phillips - Critical Discourse Analysis: An example of the good mother in literacy-advice

texts – Literacies – Nr. 7 – 2007 – p. 44 67 Wodac – Critical linguistics and critical discourse analysis– p. 204 68 Sheyholislami – Critical Discourse Analysis. – p. 4-5 69 Ibid. p. 3 70 Ibid. p. 5 71 Ibid. p. 5 72 Wodak – Critical linguistics and critical discourse analysis - p. 206

25

investigations which claim using these techniques 73 . Every researcher modifies the

investigatory tools to fit their inquiry perfectly.

Nevertheless, critical discourse analysis does not escape criticism. Widdowson, for instance

disapproves of the fact that only the analyst’s view on the texts is taken into account74 .

Producers and readers are never included into the interpretation. Cameron agrees, especially

since all communication is interactive. Together with Toolan and Schegloff, Widdowson also

believes critical discourse analysis is not meticulous enough75. Frequently the tools of analysis

are partly missing or they are not applied in the correct way. Sometimes the concepts are

quite vague which makes the evidentiary claims fragile.

1.3.3 HOW TO ANALYSE TEXTUAL DISCOURSE?

It is clear that my research is comparable to the discourse historical method of Ruth Wodak.

However there are no clear guidelines to help me create a systematic, well thought out

method to analyse my textual documents. Therefor I use different critical discourse

investigations as inspiration.

A. INTRODUCTORY QUESTIONS

In the primary stages of research a scholar has to get to know the subject. Through reading a

broader context is created before exploring the sources. In the first stage of a critical discourse

analysis, the researcher has to be aware of certain exertions. The scholar needs to be aware of

his/her own positions in the discourse communities to prevent misinterpreting of the sources.

In addition, one also needs to be aware of the position of the creator of the communication.

Following questions should help to make sure the foundation of the research is solid; of what

discourse communities am I a member? How can this affect my research? Are there other

factors that could affect my analysis (gender, ethnicity, education, age…)? Did I detect any

intertextualities when collecting data and context information? Am I working with original

sources or replicas? Can I discover any faults or manipulations in these replicas? Can I figure

73 Verdoolaege – Reconciliation discourse.– p. 4 74 Paltridge – Discourse analysis - p.195-196 75 Jan Blomaert & Chris Bulcaen – Critical discourse analysis – in: Annual Revieuws Anthropology – nr.

29 – 2000 – p.455-456

26

out of which discourse communities the creator is a part? Are there any other factors that

might influence the discourse on part of the creator (gender, ethnicity, education, age…)?

B. FRAMING

Brian Paltridge defines framing of communication as the way the content is presented76. I

would like to add the main characteristics and possibilities of the sources to this notion.

Following questions could function as a guideline: Which genre is investigated? Is the genre

relatively new or has got a considerable history behind it? If so, what are the different stages

that have been completed? Does the text fit within a certain tradition or style? If so, what are

the characteristics? What is the focus and perspective of the genre? Are there any

expectations, conventions and requirements for the genre? Is there a relationship between the

genre and others? If so, how do they influence each other? How is the content of the text

presented? What is the central theme featured in the text? Which perspective is taken by the

writer? Do my beliefs play a role in the analysis? Are there any issues emphasized or played

down? Are there any words highlighted through the use of colour, font and typestyle? How

does the audience play a role in the purpose of the text? Is there a relationship between the

creator and the audience? Which contents help build up the text? Is the used discourse

correlated to another type of discourse?

C. STUDYING SENTENCES

Although researchers tend to look at the text as a whole, one should be aware of the different

elements present in the sentences. These elements might be determining in the overall effect

of discourse, especially when it comes to connecting substances. The succeeding questions can

help analysing sentences: What is the topic of each sentence? In other words, what is each

sentence about? Did the creator use direct or indirect speech acts? Why do I think the creator

chose to use a direct or indirect speech act? Are there any actions connected to the sentences?

Are any presuppositions apparent? Can I find involvement strategies which show closeness,

intimacy, rapport and solidarity? Can I find independence strategies which give the readers

76 Paltridge – Discourse analysis – p.185

27

choices and allow them to keep their freedom? Can I detect any adjacency pairs77? Was there a

need for reparation? Can I discover pauses? Are hyponyms or meronyms used to stipulate

relationships between words78? In what time are the sentences written? Are the sentences

active or passive? What is the degree of formality or technicality? Is any humour used?

D. THE EVALUATION OF WORDS

Words are the most basic and fundamental elements that help create texts. They contain a lot

of information, especially in combination with each other. The ensuing questions will help

understand the utilised discourse: Do I notice any references, whether anaphoric, cataphoric,

exophoric, homophoric, comparative or bridging 79? Are some words repeated frequently,

whether in their original form or as a synonym? Can any opposite meanings be discovered

through the use of antonyms? Can any deviation collocation associations be discovered? What

kind of conjunction terms are used (time, consequence, comparison…)? Can I create a

diagram of patterns of cohesion? Are there any important connotations of the words? Are any

words highlighted? Are any tropes used? Does the creator use words covered with emotion?

E. ANALYSING ANOTHER LANGUAGE

Grice believes people only communicate the necessary and appropriate information80. The co-

operative encounter of this information he defines as maxims. The maxims can be divided

77 An adjacency pair is an essential component that helps organize conversation. The first

communicator sets a challenge in a way that the follow-up can be identified as related to this challenge.

Different types of adjacency pairs can be perceived: requests, invitations, assessments, questions,

blames, complements…

Paltridge – Discourse analysis – p.115 78 Hyponyms define a relationship from a general perspective to a specific one, while meronyms are

more in a ‘whole to part’ relationship. For instance cookbooks and there different titles can be seen as

hyponyms, whereas taxonomies are an example of meronyms.

Paltridge – Discourse analysis – p.135-136 79 The different kinds of references portray where the identity of an item can be found. In anaphoric

references, the item being referred to can be found in a word or phrase used earlier in the text; in

contrast the cataphoric reference can be found later in the text. As stated by its name, an exophoric

reference can be found in the situation in which the texts occurs, but it is still different from the

homophoric reference that retrieves its identity from general cultural knowledge. Comparative

references can be identified because the item with which it is being compared has been revealed. On

the other hand, bridging references can only be recognized in an indirect way.

Paltridge – Discourse analysis – p.131-133 80 Ibid. – p.62

28

into four principles: quality, quantity, relation and manner. The quality maxim implies that

statements should be true and provable, while the quantity maxim indicates we should only

give the necessary and required information given the situation. The maxims of relation and

manner indicate that one should avoid irrelevant and haze contributions. Then again, the way

people interact and implement speech acts or maxims differs across cultures 81 . Thomas

identifies malfunctions in applying and understanding the intentions of other languages as

cross-cultural pragmatic failure82. The succeeding questions should help avoid cross-cultural

pragmatic failure: Can I detect any differences in maxim principles with my own language?

Does a local dictionary reveal different nuances of key idioms? How do local researchers

describe the discourse of the sources? How do other researchers in general decode the

language?

F. BODY LANGUAGE

In spoken language another factor should be taken into account, namely the body language.

Consciously or unconsciously people add meaning to the things they say through body

movement. These questions might help detect physical discourse elements: Does the

intonation highlight specific items or words? Does the reciter look straight at the people? Is

the body language relatively calm or quite exiting? Are any words or items accentuated

through the use of hands? Does the reciter show emotions that may affect the discourse?

G. COMBINING ALL ELEMENTS

In the final stage of this analysis, one should combine all the gathered information. Following

questions are merely a fragment of all possible queries: Does the text style add meaning to

the collection? Is there a correspondence between the style and the subject? What is the role

of text in connection to other media? Are techniques used to attract attention, to support the

story or do these texts have another function? Do viewers associate different texts with each

other through colour, theme, style…? Does one text require more attention than the others?

Do texts handle a central topic or do they tell a story? Are there other factors that help

81 Paltridge – Discourse analysis – p.66 82 Ibid. - p.68

29

determine meaning of text? What general conclusion can be made of the discourse of the

text? How does this text play a role in the overall discourse of the museum?

1.4 DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF IMAGES

Seeing comes before words. The child looks and recognises

before it can speak.

- John Berger83 -

In antiquity, Aristotle points out the power of figures by stating he believes words cannot exist

without images. Around the 1800’s Napoleon, following the previous example claims that a

picture speaks louder than a thousand words. Both statements contain a partial truth, since

history has shown that images can be used to persuade and perpetuate ideas that words alone

cannot84. Media strategists have used this technique for years. When the USSR and the Nazi-

regime used a persuasion method to convince the population of their policies, the

interpretation of the word changed85 . Persuasion became known as propaganda, but the

original meaning of recruiting supporters for a certain cause gained a negative connotation86.

The fine line between propaganda and persuasion still exists. Since this study examines the

discourse of museums, it is important to clear up the distinction between the two concepts.

The museum discourse may, consciously or not try to convince or even manipulate people

into believe something. Considered as a socially accepted way, persuasion uses factual

information and emotional influences to change individual’s minds and attitudes 87 . In

contrast, propaganda makes use of non-accurate information, seemingly factual opinions and

emotional charms to reach the same goal, with the difference that propaganda is deliberately

misleading people. How, than can someone protect themselves against the deceptions of

83 John Berger – Ways of seeing - Penguin Books Ltd – London – 1972 – p. 7 84 Paul Martin Lester – Visual communication. Images with messages – Wadsworth Publishing

Company – California – 1995 – p. 73 85 Palmer, Colton, Kramer – A history of the modern world - p. 821 86 Lester – Visual communication. - p. 81 87 Ibid. – p. 80

30

propaganda and persuasion? How can an image be analysed to discover these hidden

messages?

1.4.1 THEORIES OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION

The visual communication theories are divided into two different groups based on different

elements in the process of seeing88. On the one hand there are sensual theories, based on

incentives from the outside world that activate nerve cells and create sensation. These theories

try to explain what attracts or repels people to certain images. Perceptual theories, on the

other hand are based on the conclusions made by combining all the information gathered by

sensation. These theories try to reveal the significance linked to the images. Both types of

theories are relevant for this research. Nevertheless I will only explain the basis of those

different theories and highlight elements that are relevant for my own research.

A. GESTALT

Gestalt as a visual communication philosophy can be placed within the sensual theory.

Perceptual organization, according to the gestalt is the pre-eminently process in which the

image is structured into larger wholes, which stand in relation to each other 89 . This

organization consists of perceptual grouping and figure background separation. Both are

briefly discussed.

Gestalt psychologists believe four fundamental grouping principles help combining and

understanding elements in an illustration90. The similarity principle, for instance follows the

idea that the brain will select the simplest and most stable form to concentrate on. Gestalt

philosophers also believe that the proximity of objects stimulates or discourages association.

Furthermore the law of continuance explains that the brain prefers concatenation rather than

abrupt or unusual changes. Lastly, common fate helps the brain combine elements with the

same direction or purpose.

88 Lester – Visual communication – p. 52 89 Marc Brysbaert – Psychologie – Academia Press – Gent – 2006 – p.144 90 Lester – Visual communication – p. 54

31

Figure background separation also relies on different principles91. Gestalt theorists believe, for

instance that objects of a smaller size are more likely to be seen as an image. Symmetrical

areas with a refined texture and sophisticated shape are also often perceived as figures. Even

encircled areas with familiar forms strike easily the attention. Areas located at the bottom of

the image, however are often bound to be considered as background.

B. CONSTRUCTIVISM

The constructivist philosophy is a part of the sensual theory. It brings together patterns of

shapes and tries to visually arrange groups of figures92. Although constructivists correspond

to the gestalt theories, they find that it fails to incorporate the precognition of the viewer and

the essence of seeing. Julian Hochberg, a psychology professor noted that the eyes of

observers are constantly in motion while looking at an image93. The eyes only pause for a

short period of time on individual elements. Constructivists in general concluded that these

focal points help build a mental map of the image. In combination with prior knowledge, past

experiences and that mental map, the observer makes sense of the image. How the link

between those eye fixations, a person’s memory and an explanation is made unfortunately

never gets clarified.

C. SEMIOTICS

The semiotic philosophy is a part of visual perception theories94 . In its most basic form

semiotics can be explained as the science of signs95. It explains how symbols signify what is

signified without making a moral judgement. Nevertheless, in reality this science is often

attached to ethics. According to Charles Morris, an American philosopher and semiotic

scientist the study of semiotics embodies pragmatics, semantics and syntactics 96 . The

pragmatic part indicates the origin, common use and communicative aspect of signs, while

91 Brysbaert – Psychologie – p.146 92 William E. Ryan & Theodore E. Conover – Graphic communications today – Delmar learning – New

York – p. 27 93 Lester – Visual communication – p. 58-59 94 Ibid. – p. 52 95 Janice Deledalla-Rhodes – Semiotics and ethics: the image of semiotics and semiotics of the image –

in: Winfried Nöth (ed.) – Semiotics of the media. State of the art, projects and perspectives – Mouton de

Gruyter – Berlin – 1997 – p. 111-113 96 Lester – Visual communication – p. 65

32

the semantic part tries to determine the significance of these symbols within different

cultures. Finally, the syntactic side tries to trace and explain the different ways signs are

combined to form complex messages.

One of the two main founders of the discipline, Fernand de Saussure saw semiotics as a broad

discipline, which also regarded language as a sign97. Signs, to him were the sum of the

signifier and signified. The signifier represents the physical reality the sign refers to, while the

signified is the concept one learns to associate with that sign. According to de Saussure signs

are constructed. Once their meaning is understood, one can deconstruct the systems or code

to comprehend how meaning is created within a certain culture or society98.

Charles Peirce, another pioneer in semiotics, is known for his subdivision of signs99. First there

are the iconic signs, which bear a close resemblance to the represented. These signs do not

necessarily need to resemble physically what it refers to, but the code to read the sign should

be fairly easy. A map for instance, is not necessarily a physical representation of the area, but

one does need to understand some code to recognize the signs. Subsequently index signs have

a logical connection or causal link to what they represent100. These signs are learned through

everyday life experiences. The Big Ben is usually an index for the city of London, while the

Eifel Tower represents Paris. Lastly symbolic signs have no connection whatsoever to what

they represent. The relationship is arbitrary and the only reason it can be a sign is by reaching

a consensus on the meaning. They are therefore influenced by social and cultural

considerations, and sometimes they can provoke strong emotional reactions. The famous

peace sign is an example of such a symbol.

In visual texts or images a narrative is created as in verbal texts by combining and presenting

signs in different ways101. Communicating visually enables the correspondent to combine

signs as codes in different ways to exchange complicated or abstract ideas. Arthur Asa Berger

97 Nick Lacey – Image and representation: key concepts in media studies – Palgrave – New York – 1998

– p. 57-58 98 Lester – Visual communication – p. 64 99 Lacey – Image and representation – p. 63-64 100 Lester – Visual communication – p. 63 101 Pieter Jacobus Fourie (ed.) – Media studies. Volume 2. Content, audiences, and producent – Juta

Education – Lansdowne – 2001 – p. 11

33

divides these codes into four groups, namely the metonymic, analogic, displaced and

condensed codes102. Metonymic codes allow the viewer to make associations or assumptions.

Most of the time the metonymic code already exists in viewers minds so they can make the

intended connection. Synecdoche, a common used form of metonymy, is created when a part

or partial image represents a whole103. Secondly analogic codes stimulate the viewer to make

mental resemblances104. Metaphors for instance suggest a relationship between two or more

things through equivalence. Simile on the other hand connects two signs with similar

characteristics. The displaced codes, or third group of codes, uses the significance of one set of

signs and shifts it to another group. Finally, when several single signs are used to create a new

multiplex sign, a condensed code is used.

D. COGNITION

Under the influence of the digital revolution various scientists wondered about the effects of

non-physical elements on visual perception 105 . Several visual perception theories with a

cognitive approach have been created, but the theory of cultural anthropologist Carolyn

Bloomer seems the most relevant for this research.

Bloomer acknowledged nine different mental influences that can affect visual perception106.

Memory for example, ties all images someone has ever seen together. Occasionally

mnemonics or visual aids help to remember certain events or long texts. Secondly, definite

expectations can trick the mind. When someone has a well thought out picture of a certain

place in his head, that person can miss unexpected things or details, simply because we only

focus on what we expect. Closely connected to this second influence is the selectiveness of the

mind. During each visual perception, we are flooded with images. The brain cannot

consciously process all of them. The majority of these images leave the mind without even

being noticed. Only significant details within our surroundings are picked up by the mind.

Visual stimuli from one’s everyday life are, consequently often ignored. Although this

102 Lester – Visual communication – p. 66 103 Fourie (ed.) – Media studies. – p. 11 104 Lester – Visual communication – p. 66 105 Ibid. – p. 68 106 Ibid. p. 69-72

34

fraction goes hand in hand with the two previous, Bloomer defines this habituation as a new

influence. Sentiments and feelings can also be reflected in the visual perception. The state of

mind is thus projected onto inert or non-living objects. When a certain object or image has got

a special meaning for a person, that salience will make sure the stimulus gets noticed far

more easily. The eight influence or dissonance principle reminds us that our thoughts can

only focus on one thing at a time. The greatest impact nevertheless derives from the culture

in which one belongs. Signs are mostly associated with a particular culture. Being aware of

those signs increases the comprehension of their use and the underlying reasons for it. As a

final influence, Bloomer acknowledges that the equivalent combination of words and images

is one of the strongest forms of communication.

1.4.2 HOW TO ANALYSE IMAGES?

The visualized emphasis of society becomes the currency by which to express thought,

according to Mark Moss107. The cited theories of visual communication agree with him, but

the question remains how one can diligently analyse those images. In what follows I attempt

to create a kind of roadmap which bundles relevant questions around images. This way, I do

not only intent to make my research transparent, but I would also like to provide guidance to

other researchers.

Paul Martin Lester believes there are six major steps one has to follow when analysing an

image108 . I intend to follow these steps but at the same time I add other elements and

questions to it in the hope to create a complete picture.

A. PERSONAL PERSPECTIVE

Although you cannot judge a book by its cover, it is usually the first thing we do when

looking at an image. In a split second we decide whether or not we like what we see.

Analysing an image at this level is very superficial, but it does form an early guideline109.

Memorable images always elicit stronger reactions, whether it is in the positive or negative

107 Mark Moss – Towards the visualization of history: the past as image – Lexington Books – Plymouth –

2008 – p.3 108 Lester – Visual communication – p. 124-127 109 Ibid. – p. 124

35

sense. The following questions are relevant: What is the overall feeling I get when I look at

the image? Is there a specific part that attracts my attention? Which emotions does the image

evoke? Can I position the image within a certain context? Is there a link with other images we

have ever seen? Do my expectations match the presented? Is there a particular sign that

attracts my attention because of a salient meaning? Are different forms of communication

present in the overall image?

B. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

In a next step we try to understand the image within its tradition110. Indeed, each medium has

its own history and trends. Gaining that knowledge can help us contextualize the image.

These questions can help evaluating the context: Which medium is investigated? Is the

medium relatively new or has got a considerable history behind it? If so, what are the

different stages that have been completed? Does the image fit within a certain tradition or

style? If so, what are the characteristics?

C. TECHNICAL PERSPECTIVE

Any perception of the technical skills needed to create a certain image, can help understand

the value of that same image111. The care in with which an image is created may be an

indication of the reasons why it was created in the first place. A technical knowledge also

helps detecting and seeing through manipulations. This set of questions can guide one in the

examination of images: Are there any technical characteristics that fit the tradition to which

the image belongs? Are there certain striking colours? Are there differences in size between

different elements on the image? Do certain forms strike the attention because of their

strange shape? Which techniques are used to create depth? How is the area divided? Is the

placement of the most important elements centralized or shifted? Is there a lot of empty space

or white space? Are the elements orientated in any way? Are there similarities between

different elements of the image? Is there any symmetry or balance between the elements? Is

there a sense of unity or rhythm to image? Are there any words on the image? Do the words

have a specific style? Is there a form of connection between elements through proximity,

110 Lester – Visual communication – p. 125 111 Ibid.

36

continuation, common fate or movement? Is there any evidence of manipulation or

retouching? Was a copy of the original used112? If so, is it necessary to detect the original?

D. ETHICAL PERSPECTIVE

Paul Martin Lester believes that six ethical philosophies should be used to analyse images113.

According to the categorical imperative once a certain position is taken it must be maintained.

When there are deviations from the assumed position, one must ask whether the author

deliberately took that position or if it was just coincidence. In the utilitarianism principle on

the other hand, the creator makes the conscious choice that benefits the most people after

weighing different consequences. When the maker however only thinks of his own personal

interest the hedonistic ethical perspective is at work. Subsequently the golden mean

perspective tries reaching middle ground between two extreme points of view. Usually there

is a need for compromise and negotiation. When following the Christian tradition the creator

does not want to harm anyone knowingly and tries to remain as humane as possible, the

golden rule steps in. Finally when one looks at people in the same way all people regardless of

looks, age, gender, race or colour, the ethical principle of veil of ignorance applies. The

following questions should help defining which ethical principle is at work: Is there a certain

message concealed in the image? Are there any other images of the same creator with

consistent messages or contradictory messages? Is the picture on a certain ethically charged

topic in which different opinions occur? Can I situate the maker within this debate? In what

aspects of the image can I find proof of this ethical position? Is there proof provided in only

one sign or in different signs? Is the connection between the signs metonymic, analogic,

displaced or condensed?

E. CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE

The cognitive visual perception theory believes culture plays a tremendous role in the

comprehension of signs. Identifying these signs can help determining their meaning in and

112 Helena Zinkham – Finding and researching photographs- in: Alexis E. Ramsey et al. (eds.) – Working

in the archives: practical research methods for rhetoric and composition – Southern Illinois University

Press – Carbondale – 2010 – p 126 113 Lester – Visual communication – p. 125-126

37

for society114. There are a number of parallels with the previous section. Similar questions can

therefore occur. Can I recognize one or several signs in the image? Is there a connection

between the signs metonymic, analogic, displaced or condensed? Which signs can be found in

the foreground of the picture? Can similarity, proximity, continuation or common fate

explain the grouping of different signs? Are any the signs commonly used in a certain

culture? Where did the maker find inspiration? What do the signs mean? Is there a correlation

between the ethnicity of the maker and a possible meaning of a sign115? Are there any

influences of my own ethnicity that can affect our perception? Can the meaning of the image

be linked to an event in the life of the creator?

F. CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE

The final stage of the image analysis tries to exceed that specific image to draw conclusions

on the viewer and the medium within that specific culture116. When investigating a single

image, no further question should be asked and a conclusion can be formulated. However,

when a range of images is the subject of an enquiry the positioning of single images with

respect to each other can give meaning. Following questions can thus be relevant: Is there a

particular style connected to the collection or is there a mix117? Does the style add meaning to

the collection? Is there a correspondence between the style and the subject? What is the role

of images in connection to other media? Are the images used to attract attention, to support

the story or does it have another function? Do viewers associate different images with each

other through metonymic, analogic, displaced or condensed codes? Does one image require

more attention than the others? Do the images handle a central topic or do they tell a story?

Are there other factors that help determine meaning of the images?

114 Lester – Visual communication – p. 126 115 Rod Plotnik & Haig Kouyoumdjan – Introduction to psychology. Ninth edition – Wadsworth

Cengage Learning – Belmont – 2011 – p. 143 116 Lester – Visual communication – p. 126 117 Moser – The devil is in the detail – p. 28-29

38

2. VILLA GRIMALDI, PARQUE POR LA PAZ

2.1 HOW IT ALL BEGAN…

El olvido está lleno de memoria.

- Mario Benedetti118 -

In the nineteenth century, the Uruguayan nobleman José Arrieta chose to build a controlling

villa on his domain in the agricultural area of the current region Peñalolén just outside

Santiago119. Later on, the area was owned by an Italian called Emilio Vasallo, who turned the

housing into a pleasant and luxurious getaway, particularly for well-known left-wing

intellectuals like Pablo Neruda. Subsequently, Vasallo graced his restaurant and discotheque

with the name ‘Paraíso Villa Grimaldi’120.

By end of 1973, Vasallo was forced to sell his property to Pinochet’s secret police force DINA

(Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional 121 ). Villa Grimaldi was sought after because of its

symbolic message to the left political wing and its ideal location122. In spite of the isolated

position, it was still within easy reach of Santiago and the small military Tobalaba airfield was

conveniently close by123. Under the influence of Colonel Manuel Contreras, the estate was

converted into Cuartel Terranova, a secret detention and torture centre that complemented

118 Corporación Parque por la Paz Villa Grimaldi – Inicio – in: http://villagrimaldi.cl/historia/antes-de-

1973/ - consulted on 30.06.2012 119 Teresa Mead - Holding the Junta Accountable: Chile’s “Sitios de Memoria” and the History of

Torture, Disappearance, and Death – in: Radical History Review – vol. 79 – 2001 – p. 128 120 Corporación Parque por la Paz Villa Grimaldi – Antes de 1973 – in:

http://villagrimaldi.cl/historia/antes-de-1973/ - consulted on 30.06.2012 121 The DINA police force was officially founded in June 1974 but the force had been active since

November 1973. They coordinated all the operations of the intelligence services of the armed forces.

Since the DINA’s charter stated that they could arrest anyone, and torture became their most feared

characteristic, DINA was more than a helpful aid for Pinochet. When the US Assistant Secretary of

State for Inter-American Affairs Terrence Todman visited Chile in 1977, the DINA was resolved and

replaced by the Central National de Informaciones (CNI).

Salvatore Bizzaro – Historical Dictionary of Chile 3th edition – Scarecrow Press Inc. – Maryland – 2005

– p. 223 122 Corporación Parque por la Paz Villa Grimaldi – Historia – in: http://villagrimaldi.cl/historia/ -

consulted on 30.06.2012 123 Mead - Holding the Junta Accountable – p. 128

39

the national network124. The Brigada de Inteligencia Metropolitana (BIM125), a part of the

internal operation program of the DINA, also conducted its repression of left enthusiasts in

Santiago from Villa Grimaldi.

In 1977 the DINA was replaced by the Central National de Informaciones (CNI ). As a result

the work in Villa Grimaldi phased out after 1978 and part of the site was dismantled126.

However, when it became clear in the late 1980’s that Pinochet would no longer be in charge

of the country, the military sought ways to cover up all the exposures of brutality 127 .

Consequently, General Hugo Salas Wenzel, director of the CNI, decided to sell Villa Grimaldi

to the investment group Sociedad Constructora EGTP Ltda, composed of his own family

members128. All the old structures would be demolished in order to make room for new

accommodations.

The demolition of the former torture buildings went hand in hand with movement and

clatter. Anxious and troubled neighbours notified priests, human rights activists,

neighbourhood associations and media representatives of the activities in 1990 129 . The

subsequently founded umbrella association Asamblea Permanente por los Derechos

Humanos de Peñalolén y la Reina started up legal operations. The Assembly assured key

confederates within the state and launched demonstrations and media campaigns. In

December 1992 the Assembly could convince the Ministry of Housing to confiscate Villa

124 Villa Grimaldi was part of a national network that contained about 1156 detention centers. More

than 80 of them were situated in Chile’s capital, Santiago.

Corporación Parque por la Paz Villa Grimaldi - Red de recintos de detención – in:

http://villagrimaldi.cl/historia/red-de-recintos-de-detencion/ - consulted on 30.06.2012

Lazzara – Chile in transition. - p. 132 125 BIM is a part of the internal operations center of DINA, charged with the abolition of the left. Special

action groups operated out of diverse locations in Chile’s capital, for instance Villa Grimaldi.

Mark Ensalaco – Chile under Pinochet. Recovering the truth – University of Pennsylvania Press,

Philadelphia – 2000 – p. 57-58 126 Corporación Parque por la Paz Villa Grimaldi - Recuperación Villa Grimaldi – in:

http://villagrimaldi.cl/historia/recuperacion-de-villa-grimaldi/ - consulted on 01.07.2012 127 Stern – Reckoning with Pinochet– p.170 128 Lazzara – Chile in transition. - p. 132 129 Stern – Reckoning with Pinochet – p.170

Corporación Parque por la Paz Villa Grimaldi - Recuperación Villa Grimaldi – in:

http://villagrimaldi.cl/historia/recuperacion-de-villa-grimaldi/ - consulted on 01.07.2012

40

Grimaldi, but it was only in 1994 that the actual order was issued. By then, the investment

group had wiped out all the buildings at the former detention site.

In the intervening time discussion arose among survivors of Cuartel Terranova and family

members of disappeared individuals on how to preserve the ruins of the former detention

centre and honour its victims at the same time130. The first proposal was to leave the remnants

of the buildings as they were found and only add a monument in honour of the victims.

Completely contradictory, supporters of the second proposal had hoped to rebuild the former

detention centre as if it never had been destroyed. The third and final proposal gained to most

success partly because the symbol of death would be changed to one of life and hope. The

former residence would be remodelled and turned in a park for peace. Conveniently the park

for peace fitted in quite well with the government’s political agenda of reconciliation and

moving on. As a result, the idea of the park was supported by the government ensuing some

lobbying and the designers gained some financial aid.

On the 22th of March 1997, Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz was officially instated and the

Corporación Parque por la Paz Villa Grimadi, the NGO created to maintain and administrate

the site, received the key from the minister131. Villa Grimaldi was ready to receive the public

as one of the first Latin American former torture centres altered into a human rights site132.

The quote mentioned at the beginning of this chapter appears on the wall of remembrance of

known political prisoners killed or disappeared in Villa Grimaldi, as well as on their website133.

It means that oblivion is filled with memory and in a way it encapsulates fundamental

elements in the existence of Villa Grimaldi. By destroying all the physical evidence, the

military hoped that in time the brutalities and abuses would be forgotten. However, the

memory of neighbours prevailed as they rang the alarm bell which led in the end to the

salvation of the former torture centre. Even when the government tried to close the memory

box, Villa Grimaldi arose as one of the first museums to tell their story of the Pinochet era.

130 Lazzara – Chile in transition. - p. 135 131 Stern – Reckoning with Pinochet – p.171 132 Ibid. – p.173 133 Ibid. – p.395 (II)

41

Because of its strong connection to Villa Grimaldi and because it contains one of the narrating

characteristics of museums, I decided to reveal this quotation in my title.

2.2 DISCOURSE AT CARTEL TERRANOVA

2.2.1 INTRODUCTION

I strongly believe that there are many different and complex ways of dealing with and

remembering a traumatic past. Individual memories are sometimes tied together in an inter-

subjective framework. Many times these social processes turned out to be a battleground on

which different versions of that past claimed to tell the truth 134 . The question of truth

however, is barely relevant in this inquiry since I am trying to understand what aspects of the

past are remembered, why they are remembered and how these memories are narrated

consciously or unconsciously through images, words, architecture…

2.2.2 ANALYSIS OF THE MUSEUM AND ITS SETTINGS

Located at the far end of the suburbs of Santiago, the former detention centre now known as

Villa Grimaldi, can hardly be called a touristic inducement. According to Moser, this

restricted accessibility should result in a focused and specific discourse. Although only visitor

numbers of the past three years are available, the characteristics of the circa 10 000 guests

seem to verify this theory, considering that most of them are foreign researchers and scholars

or former detainees and family members. Every one of them is appealed to the sense of place

and the historical awareness of the peace park135. Until recently, an accidental passenger

would not be attracted to the high outer walls, since there was no way of knowing that a

134 Lazzara – Chile in transition. - p. 2 135 Sense of place connects a meaningful past or part of the past to the present. That influence of that

past in the present makes sense and gives meaning to what is there now. Looking at the history of Villa

Grimaldi, the presence of a peace park can be accounted for.

Corporación Parque por la Paz Villa Grimaldi - Transmisión de la memoria y promoción de los

derechos humanos en el Parque por la Paz Villa Grimaldi. Convenio de Colaboración Corporación

Parque por la Paz Villa Grimaldi y Dirección de Bibliotecas, Archivos y Museos. Informe final. Enero –

diciembre 2011 – p. 5

42

museum and peace park was housed inside. The Villa Grimaldi Corporation took note of this

critique and graced the wall with a large banner as part of the renovations of February 2012.

Entering the park, the open and relaxing space emphasises the peace and quiet, which seem

very much in contrast with the memory of the brutalities that once occurred here. In a way

silence and torture are not necessarily contradicting, since stillness was maintained among

the prisoners and companions in reserves of themselves and each other. The only sounds that

could be heard were the orders of DINA militia and the screams of torture victims136. Keeping

that silence can therefore be seen as a tribute to all the wounded. In addition, the intensity of

this stillness can also be seen as a silent triumph over the military who sought to completely

wipe out and cover up the history of Terranova.

On the other hand, the concord contradicts with the former activities and highlighted

remnants of that time. The apparent brightness, simplicity and beauty of the park are rudely

disturbed by the tiny wooden cell and the Rieles monument 137 . Both elements, one a

reconstruction of the petite housing of detainees and one commemorative monument of

torture casualties discarded at sea, were added a few years after the inauguration to insure

that the history of Villa Grimaldi could not be forgotten138. At the back of the park, more eye

catching restored exhibit areas and monuments, such as a large tower and stone wall of

names, were created to refer to the disturbing past139. The contrast of these remnants is

enhanced by the contrast in strength of light. The inside spaces are kept quite dark in

136 Occasionally sounds of joy could be heard at Cartuel Terranova, when militia brought their families

to enjoy a holiday. At the same time, victims were still imprisoned and tortured at Terranova. 137 The Gestalt theory would explain the disruptive nature of both elements as a combination of the law

of continuance an the law of common fate. Our brain does indeed prefer fluent and smooth lines and it

even builds up certain expectations based on previous experiences. When however, this flow is damaged

by two unexpected and contrarily shaped buildings, they are percieved as disruptive. At the same time

they will attract our attentions because they are so seemingly out of place. 138 Corporación Parque por la Paz Villa Grimaldi – Monumento Rieles – in:

http://villagrimaldi.cl/parque-por-la-paz/monumento-rieles-2/ - consulted on 01.07.2012

Corporación Parque por la Paz Villa Grimaldi – La Celda – in: http://villagrimaldi.cl/parque-por-la-

paz/la-celda/ - consulted on 01.07.2012 139 According to Paul Williams pillars of stone are a modern symbol of showing our willingness to

remember.

Paul Williams – Memorial Museums. The Global Rush to Comemorate Atrocities – Berg – Oxford –

2007 – p. 1

43

resemblance of the victims experiences, while the outside spaces are bathing in natural light.

Colour theory and theory of light both agree that dark areas usually repel people. Consciously

created or not, the darkness of the torture chambers in the tower thus triggers the natural

instinct of people to dislike and avoid these places.

In addition to these reconstructions, even the general layout of the park contradicts the

history of Cuartel Terranova. The X-shaped blueprint of the park is explained not only as a

sign to mark the place as worthy of distinction but also as a place of reconciliation. In the

guidebook of the park’s inauguration, the figure is linked with the religious symbol of the

cross that carries a double meaning of death and resurrection140. On the other hand a plus sign

is often used as an acronym when Chileans write ‘Nunca más’ or never again141. The sealing of

the entrance gate at the inaugural ceremony conceals the same message.

Furthermore, the garden of roses portrays similar elements. The garden is a true eye catcher

in the summer because of its bright and vibrant colour. Every rose is conjoined with a

woman’s name that was once a victim of the Pinochet era. Depending on which circle she is

part of, the story of the woman is different. The first circle joins the disappeared and ejected

female victims of Villa Grimaldi, while the second and third circle reveal the disappeared and

ejected females during the 1970’s and 1980’s. The roses originate from the bushes of Cuartel

Terranova. At the time, the scent of roses resembled the entrance of the tower of questioning

and torture. In the present day, the roses are symbolically transferred from the brutality of

torture into a soft and appealing area of remembrance. Steve Stern believes therefore that the

140 Michael Lazarra mentions that this redemptive reading of the x-shaped blueprint beseechs certain

questions. Who should, for instance be washed clean in the fountain at the middle of the cross? Is

redemption even possible after everything that happened? Therefore, the layout of the park starts up a

certain debate on reconciliation.

Lazzara – Chile in transition. - p. 138 141 ‘Nunca más or never again, refers to elements of President Aylwin’s speech. The terminologie is used

to enhance the message that never again atrocities and violations of human rights will happen in Chile.

A comprehensive explanation of the term and its history, is explained in 2.2.3 Discourse analysis of

language, c. Studying senteces.

44

aesthetic of Villa Grimaldi favours symbolism and reflection over reconstruction to

commence and ease the debate on human right violations and reconciliation142.

I however believe that in recent years, an alternative ways to this aspiration became more

apparent. The original aesthetic design negotiated with the government, was adjusted over

time under the influence of different elevations of memory. Therefore the construction of the

tower, the memory room and the oral archive together with the most recent addition of

information panels, lead me to believe that the actual, non-symbolic historical story of Villa

Grimaldi becomes more and more essential. As a result, the symbolic storyline is indeed

enhanced, but at the same time it is also threatened by this direct narrative. Because of these

efforts the peace park gained more characteristics of a museum. In spite of this theory, it is

true that the mentioned display areas are mainly secondary. Most of these areas are situated

in buildings and cannot be seen at first glance. Therefore people are not easily drawn to them

and they usually do not spend much time in these places. In accordance with the theory of

light and museum design, the secondary places are separated from the primary ones through

difference in light and size. The mentioned secondary places of Villa Grimaldi are no

exception on this rule.

In creating Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz, elements and materials of the demolished

Cuartel Terranova were recycled. The mosaic signs created to indicate the different spaces in

the park are pieced together with fragments of tiles that were part of what used to be the main

house of the domain143. These tiles and colours were probably detectable when prisoners tried

squinting their eyes hoping to see something through the bottom of their blindfolds. This

element together with the other reconstructions increases the possibility of identifying with a

former detainee 144 . According to psychoanalysis, the emotional tie created through

reconstructions and testimonies, unconsciously affects an individuals’ ability to emotionally

and intellectually connect with the person one is tied with. Different techniques are often used

142 Stern – Reckoning with Pinochet– p.173 143 Examples of a mosaic sign can be found in Appendix 2 – 2.1 – p. 143 144 Jeffrey Karl Ochsner - Understanding the Holocaust through the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum

– in: Journal of Architectural Education - Vol. 48 - Nr. 4 - 1995 - p. 242

45

by museums to create identification in order to overcome a sense of otherness. It also

enhances the impact of the message the museum hopes to communicate. In making the

visitors identify with detainees, the emotions connected to different reconstructions are

transferred more easily. The highlighting of human rights consequently happens on an

unconscious level.

Although no particular pathway must be followed to understand the chronicle of Villa

Grimaldi, Pedro Matta, former detainee and active militant in preserving Villa Grimaldi,

guides people through the park by following the victims’ day to day life in Cuartel Terranova.

He mainly focuses on his own story and brings the past to life through the use of ruins and

reconstructions. Other former detainees follow in his footsteps as they use their own narrative

to tell their personal coloured history of Villa Grimaldi.

The Corperación Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz also took initiative to create different

trajectories with different premises. The main goal is to educate people on human rights and

prevent state terrorism from ever happening again145. Quantitate numbers do not explain

much of discourse, but they can help defining emphasised ideas. Three of the trajectories take

up discrimination issues (ideological, racial and discrimination of women), three embody

memories en testimonies of Villa Grimaldi and another two consider the general historical

context of the Pinochet epoch. The wall of names, the wooden cell and the rose garden are the

most apparent elements in these tours. This is hardly surprising, since I have already shown

that they attract consciously or unconsciously, the visitors’ attention through their colour and

shape.

Witcomb believes that the variety of pathways in Villa Grimaldi conveys a more active role to

the visitors 146 . Opposed to singling out and highlighting one particular set of materials

through one singular narrative, the visitors are encouraged to interpret aspects of the

represented features themselves and help grant meaning to them. Discussion on human right

issues and reconciliation are therefore stimulated, once again.

145 Corporación Parque por la Paz Villa Grimaldi – Ruta temáticas – in:

http://villagrimaldi.cl/educacion/rutas-tematicas/ - consulted on 01.07.2012 146 Moser – The devil is in the detail - p. 26-27

46

2.2.3 DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF LANGUAGE

A critical discourse analysis of language bears in mind that different elements, such as genre,

context and style help define the implementation of speech. Phillips defines critical analysis

as a socio-political interpretive reading of language-in-use in whatever form it appears147.

These different manifestations of texts have got their own specific characteristics and are

therefore treated separately in this inquiry. In my analysis I will make a distinction between

the texts of the website, texts used in publications and texts as presented in the museum.

A. INTRODUCTORY ANALYSIS

Generating overall knowledge of a specific historical event goes hand in hand with getting to

know dedicated and interrelated literature. When reading through Villa Grimaldi’s website, I

encountered parts of transcripts that were borrowed from correlated literature. Particularly

the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the reports of the Chilean truth commissions

are cited. As a result four initial discourse communities can be presumed among the

members of the Villa Grimaldi Corporation, namely a human rights discourse, a

reconciliation discourse following the government, a museum discourse and a discourse

based on the perception of former detainees and victims since they were consulted frequently

when creating the peace park.

A similar observation can be made for panels used in museum exhibitions, given that the

Universal Declaration of Human Rights and reports of the Chilean truth commissions are

also cited here. In addition, in the temporary exhibition of 2006 ‘Villa Grimaldi Presente,

Pasado y Futuro’ the Corporation frequently turned to testimonies of former victims and

historical sources such as governmental programs, to validate their story. Therefore, the

presumed discourses of the Villa Grimaldi website are also endorsed here.

However, the Villa Grimaldi Corporation is inconsistent in its practice of the reconciliation

discourse. Publications of seminars and brochures are far more focused on the memory

147 Phillips - Critical Discourse Analysis – p. 44

47

question and the promotion of human rights148. Even in the annual assessments reports to the

government, reconciliation is not mentioned once.

This preliminary defining of discourse groups does not mean much, since members of speech

communities may switch easily between the alleged identities. One can only presume that a

particular set of norms and terminologies is shared by each member of this discourse

community. Consequently, fragments of these different discourses could be suspected in the

narrative of Villa Grimaldi.

B. FRAMING

The major distinctive features of websites such as the presence of images, videos, informative

texts and official documents, are account for on the webpage of Villa Grimaldi. They are

combined to attract visitors, enhance the narrated and connect different parts of information

with each other. Similarly, all other texts are conforming to their alleged physiognomies.

With the exception of the permanent exhibition panels, nearly all other billboards attract the

attention of visitors through their use of colour. The vibrant colours guide the visitor through

the main narrative, while the slightly darker coloured areas portray additional information149.

In all three text categories the principal goals of Villa Grimaldi, as stated in their constitution

act, of defending and educating people about human rights and the history of Cuartel

Terranova, are reflected150. A distinction in prominence is nonetheless apparent between the

different text genres. The website favours the victims’ side of the story and puts a minor

emphasis on the female victims, while parts of the general history are pushed more to the

background or are even left out151. In most texts, the general history is indeed referred to the

148 Because of the nature of seminars, a large part of the discourse is not solely Villa Grimaldi’s. Since it

is nearly impossible to analyse and detect all the influences of Villa Grimaldi, I will only focus on the

parts directly transcendent of one of its members. 149 Although the effects of visual perception theories are addressed in the previous section, they are

fairly relevant in this context since the use of colour sets apart the main narrative and the side stories.

Gary Edson, David Dean – The handbook for museums – Routledge – London – 1994 – p. 56 150 Iván Millán Fuentes – Reduccion a escritura publica. Acta de constitución de la corporación “parque

por la paz” – p. 5 151 Teresa Mead agrees with my observation. She wonders if the many adolescent people who just hang

out in the peace park, actually understand the history of Villa Grimaldi. Mead blames a part of this lost

at the government. Could Paul Williams be rights when saying that the fixation of historical events in

48

back. The only exceptions are the billboards and accompanying brochure of the 2006

exhibition ‘Villa Grimaldi Prestente, Pasado y Futuro’152. Excluding seminar texts, all texts

draw indeed upon testimonials of former detainees. The nature of the parks’ visitors can

somewhat clarify these highlighted elements, since researchers are mainly interested in the

testimonies of former detainees, while former captives and their family members are above

all concerned with remembrance and memory153.

The minor emphasis on female victims on Villa Grimaldi’s webpage is not a onetime

occurrence. In 2004, Villa Grimaldi organised an exposition solely dedicated to the females of

Villa Grimaldi154. Most recently, The ‘Acerca de los Cuadernos de Trabajos Educativos’, a

periodical published by Villa Grimaldi every semester, issued two pieces on the role of women

and women organizations in the events of 1973 – 1990155. This accent on women can be

interpreted as a form of identification156. Generally, consciously or not, people still look at

concrete structures, like for instance Villa Grimaldi has become too familiar and therefore pedestrian? I

do not believe Villa Grimaldi has been stuck in concrete structures, since I encountered different efforts

of the Corporation to implement more general history and connections to similar histories of other

memorial sites. Unfortunately this information is not yet adopted in the history folder of the website or

the permanent exhibition.

Mead - Holding the Junta Accountable – p. 132

Williams – Memorial Museums.– p. 181 152 Corporación Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz – Exposición Villa Grimaldi Presente, pasadoy futuro.

Brochure – 15p.

Corporación Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz – Exposición Villa Grimaldi Presente, pasado y futuro. –

Billboards 1-21 153 On the other hand, this hypothesis can be turned around, since theorists say that the framing can

define the way one reads a text. This would mean that Villa Grimaldi typically attracts researchers and

former detainees because of the way the park portrays itself. But then again Faireclough disagrees with

this premise, given that he sees framing as a device that organizes the relations between different

discourses.

Paltridge – Discourse analysis– p.187, 197

Norman Fairclough, Jane Mulderrig, Ruth Wodak – Critical discourse analysis – p. 13 - Teun A. Van

Dijk (eds.) - Discourse Studies: A Multidisciplinary Introduction – SAGE Publications Ltd. – London –

p.362 154 Corporación Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz – Exposición Villa Grimaldi. Presente, pasado y futuro.

Brochure – p.11 155 Área de Educación /Corporación Parque por la Paz Villa Grimaldi - Acerca de los Cuadernos de

Trabajos Educativos – Embajada del Reino de los Paises Bajos - Santiago – year 3 – Vol. 4 – 2012 – p.4 156 According to psychoanalysis, identification creates an emotional tie that unconsciously affects an

individuals’ ability to think, feel and act like the person one is emotionally tied to. The techniques are

used to bring history into the current lives of the visitors.

49

women as weaker and more vulnerable. Torturing them is thus not done. Testimonies of the

opposite tend to shock people and bring out emotions more easily. Consequently these

emotions enhance the message of convicting torture and fighting for human rights.

Publications of seminars and brochures on education stress human rights and memory157.

This can partly be explained by the nature of these colloquiums. Different people from

different institutions gather to discuss shared theoretical elements. The results and ideas of

these discussions are then brought back to the individual institutions where they are

administered accordingly. Human rights and memory are certainly the two general themes

present at Villa Grimaldi.

Ultimately, the core ideas and topics stay the same throughout the different variations in

texts. The only differences are alterations in emphasises put on the different scripts. The

modes in which human rights appear in Villa Grimaldi’s brochures, for instance are very

variable. While one publication petitions woman’s rights, another enhances discrimination158.

The multitude and significance of terminologies like human rights and memory are indeed

part of the explanation. However, one must keep in mind that Villa Grimaldi is a museum

and therefore uses a museum discourse. Highlighting different aspects of these larger items

may result in the creation of different exhibitions. Diverse exhibitions attract visitors and

results in the achievement of a larger audience.

C. STUDYING SENTENCES

The history of Cuartel Terranova is used as a platform to put human rights issues and the

education about these issues on the table in the hope to open the debate on remembrance and

reconciliation. The goals as stated in the constitution act are somewhat logically, also

prominently apparent in the subjects sentences. In a direct but formal way, information on

Ochsner - Understanding the Holocaust through the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum - p. 242 157 Corporación Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz - Ciudadanía y Memorias. Desarrollo de Sitios de

Conciencia para el aprendizaje en Derechos Humanos. Seminario y Taller

Corporación Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz - Ciudad y Memorias. Desarrollo de Sitios de Conciencia

en el Chile actual. Seminario y Taller 158 Corporación Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz – Rutas Themáticas Discriminación - Embajada del

Reino de los Paises Bajos – Santiago – 30 p.

50

different historical aspects of Villa Grimaldi or information on different issues of human

rights is communicated to the visitor. This formality and the fact that the Corporation does

not feel restricted in the ability to say what they want, conveys with the presupposed discourse

of museums. An article as result of a colloquium is written in the appropriate academic

discourse.

With the exception of the official and initiating documents, not one word is linked to any

action. When the inauguration documents were written, the inscribed words essentially

contained the action of officially instating Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz. The absence of

these achieving terminologies enhances the previously mentioned direct speech act.

Nonetheless, one particular expression, printed on the website and the brochure of the

‘Presente, Pasado y Futuro’ exhibition might indicate or even initiate action. ‘Nunca más’ or

never again is filled with meaning. In the first place, it is a reference to Patricio Aylwin’s

policy of acknowledging the truth and promising prevention (nunca más)159. The former

president hoped to establish a respectful way of living together in a democracy without ever

having to return to any form of dictatorship where a lack of respect for opposite opinions and

human life prevailed. The second implication of nunca más is closely related to the first one,

with the difference that it only focusses on the last part of Aylwin’s demarcation. The phrase is

used in a more restricted way, since it is formulated as protest against the disappearances and

human rights violations that took place during Pinochet’s dictatorship. The phrase was and

still is carried around when memory upheavals arise or justice for human rights violations is

demanded. In a way nunca más became a promise, a complaint and a demand. Therefore it

can be seen as an expression that initiates action: help keep the promise that this will never

happen again and take action by demanding justice for those who cannot ask for it any longer

so perpetrators are punished. The usage of this expression on the website of Villa Grimaldi

can consequently be correlated to all these connotations.

Less noticeable is the action contained in the word memory. One gains memories, creates

memories, makes memories or remembers memories. Memory is indeed always combined

159 Stern – Reckoning with Pinochet– p.31

51

with an action capturing word160. The Villa Grimaldi Corporation thus, asks its visitors to

actively do something while visiting the park. The best example of Villa Grimaldi’s plea to

take action by remembering can be found in Mario Benedetti’s phrase and catch phrase of

Villa Grimaldi ‘El olvido está lleno de memoria’ (Oblivion is filled with memory). The

Corporation uses this phrase in its educational folders, on their website and it is even written

in large letters on one of the permanent exhibition panels161.

In general, I feel that the Corporation shows a certain amount of involvement with the

victims. Since I am not very familiar with Chilean custom, I do not know if showing

involvement is appropriate. Then again, in my own culture, people generally show a certain

amount of empathy for victims. Therefore, I tend to believe that a definite amount of

empathy is permitted anywhere in the world and thus also in Chile. This involvement of Villa

Grimaldi with victims can be verified through a number of elements. For instance, the earlier

noted guided tours of former detainees show that the Corporation is fairly solidary with the

former victims and their story. Sometimes those testimonies are used in exhibitions and

educational paths or folders162 . Quite often, the Corporation refers to the environmental

circumstances in which former detainees had to live when explaining the function of

buildings163. It is a technique used to enhance the identification process of visitors in the hope

of shortening the distance between the past and the present164. In addition, the Villa Grimaldi

160 The example ‘it is just a memory’ still proves the action contained within the word memory. Being

indeed acquires action, not only the reason that a verb usually contains an act, but also because one

cannot just be. Shakespeare’s famous sentence of the play Hamlet proves my point: ‘To be or not to be,

that’s the question’. Because a philosophical discussion of the verb ‘to be’ would lead me to far away

from my original statement, I will just state that I believe ‘being’ is an action containing verb. 161 An example of an educational folder: Corporación Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz - Contexto

Histórico y Partido Políticos de la Izquierda Chilena. Video 1 Actores Políticos de la Sociedad Chilena

1960 – 1973 162 For example: Corporación Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz – Rutas Themáticas Discriminación -

Embajada del Reino de los Paises Bajos – Santiago – p.18

Corporación Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz – Exposición Villa Grimaldi Presente, pasado y futuro. –

Billboard 13 163 The reference to these conditions of living is made on the website and in the exhibition ‘Villa

Grimaldi. Presente, Pasado y Futuro’. 164 This constant connection to the life of former detainees encourages identification. According to

psychoanalysis, identification creates an emotional tie that unconsciously affects an individuals’ ability

to think, feel and act like the person one is emotionally tied to.

52

webpage highlights different forms of torture and the amount of other detention centres

through the use of bold italics. This accent is meant as an objection but it also puts Villa

Grimaldi in a larger historical perspective. The recently installed billboard ‘Terrorismo de

Estado en Chile. Los años de DINA’ also portrays this larger historical perspective. At the

same time however, the billboard sorrows all the victims made in these detention centres.

Finally, the creation of a separate folder dedicated to Villa Grimaldi’s victims, shows again the

allegiance and involvement with them.

A remarkable element of the website and the ‘Villa Grimaldi Presente, Pasado y Futuro’

exhibition is the list of names with the key perpetrators of Villa Grimaldi. In the exhibition

the names are even accompanied by pictures. Contrastingly, both truth commissions stated

they would not include names of perpetrators in their rapport since they did not want to take

any stand in the potential responsibility of people165. According to them the court of justice

was/is the only place that can accuse people of a crime, while keeping the values of

democracy, a basic form of respect for human rights and the right of people to defend

themselves, alive. Not following this guidance of the truth commissions and therefore the

government shows the independence of Villa Grimaldi today. Yet again, the list proofs the

solidarity and closeness with former detainees since the Corporation grants the demands of

victims by publishing the list and helping them battle against the presumed impunity of the

government and the alleged biasedness of judiciary166. The billboard title “La tarea pendiente

de la justicia” (The worry about the unsettled justice) is proof of their worry about impunity167.

The Corporation even writes on its webpage that Villa Grimaldi is an “encuentro y referente

para la memoria, la justicia y la promoción de los derechos humanos” (encounter and

reference of memory, justice and the promotion of human rights)168. On the other hand, the

Ochsner - Understanding the Holocaust through the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum - p. 242 165 Chilean Nation Commission on Truth and Reconciliation – Report of the Chilean National

Commission on Truth and Reconciliation – University of Notre Dame Press – Indiana – Vol. I/II – 1993

– p. 60 166 Stern – Reckoning with Pinochet – p.94, 328 167 Corporación Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz – Exposición Villa Grimaldi Presente, pasado y futuro.

– Billboard 20 168 Corporación Parque por la Paz Villa Grimaldi – Parque por la paz – in: http://villagrimaldi.cl/parque-

por-la-paz/ - consulted on 01.07.2012

53

publication of this list seemingly creates an ideological conflict. Villa Grimaldi is being

disciplined indirectly by the truth commissions on the fact their actions are in conflict with

the ideology they stand for, namely respect for human rights. In my opinion, this conflict of

interests puts Villa Grimaldi on the borderline of getting too involved with the victims. This

close connection with the detainees can therefore be seen as a deviation from the museum

discourse. The battle for justice puts definitely stress on the presumed discourse of

reconciliation in the way the government had envisioned it.

The annual reports to the government do not contain any refreshing elements of emphasis

hidden in the narrative. In a direct and formal way, activities and engagements of Villa

Grimaldi in the bygone year are communicated. The documents are still interesting, seeing

that it combines all activities in one place. Indirectly the highlighted themes of the past year

can be uncovered. In 2011, the 15th anniversary of Villa Grimaldi, various renovations and

inductions were completed169 . The inauguration of the oral archive highlights again the

involvement with former victims, but at the same time historical evidence is gathered to

make sure the history of Villa Grimaldi is not forgotten. Furthermore, different initiatives

comprising human rights, encounter the creation of different thematic paths to visit Villa

Grimaldi.

An inferior element in almost all the texts written by the Villa Grimaldi Corporation is the

pragmatic presupposition that readers are acquainted with the general history of Chile170. I do

believe most people know Pinochet staged a coup on Salvador Allende in the context of the

battle against communism. They know that human right violations occurred during

Pinochet’s dictatorship. However, the knowledge about the different ideological positions and

Chilean political traditions that lay at the basis of this conflict are not as known. Teresa Mead

even wonders if Chilean adolescents are able to fully grasp the history of Villa Grimaldi171.

169 Corporación Parque por la Paz Villa Grimaldi - Memoria y Balance 2011 Corporación Parque por la

Paz Villa Grimaldi 170 In discourse analysis a distinction is made between conventional presumptions and pragmatic

presuppositions. The former is linked to a particular linguistic form, while the latter is context

dependent.

Paltridge – Discourse analysis – p.60 171 Mead - Holding the Junta Accountable – p. 132

54

This lack of knowledge or possibility to gain that knowledge, simplifies the historical story of

Cuartel Terranova to a level of good versus evil, while the reality is more complex172. Of

course in a way the good of human rights prevailed over the evil of atrocities, but the

difference in opinion that eventually led the conflict to escalade, are not entirely resolved.

Visitors of Villa Grimaldi who are not familiar with the relatively recent history of Chile, will

therefore miss part of the discourse. Only the temporary exposition ‘Villa Grimaldi Presente,

pasado y futuro’ resolves part of this emptiness.

D. STUDYING WORDS

Repetition of words is more than a form of lexical cohesion. In conversation, the recurrence

of words is often used to emphasis certain elements or ideas173 . In my analysis of Villa

Grimaldi’s texts, I used the program ‘Wordle’ to define which words were used most often. The

frequent application of the words ‘Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz’ can hardly be called a

surprise. Therefore I shall not go into farther detail on these words.

The frequent appearances of the concepts derechos humanos (human rights) and memoria

(memory) could be suspected and can be explained at a certain level since both perceptions

already emerged on a regular basis in this analysis. Then again, they are of course part of the

goals rendered in the constitution act of Villa Grimaldi. Memory and human rights are

especially recurrent in the publications resulting from seminars. In the publication of the

seminar ‘Ciudadanía y Memorias. Desarrollo de Sitios de Conciencia para el aprendizaje en

Derechos Humanos’ Villa Grimaldi cooperatives use the term memory 62 times in less than

20 pages. In contrast, human rights, one of the actual topics of the seminar, is only applied 23

times. In the seminar of ‘Ciudad y Memorias. Desarrollo de Sitios de Conciencia en el Chile

actual. Seminario y Taller’ the balance again tips over in favour of memory174. Other proof of

the importance of both terminologies, is that the educational section of Villa Grimaldi follows

the most recent developments on human rights issues and memory. The most important

172 Alexis Lynn Howe illustrates this through analysing the narrative of different media (books, film,

theatre...). More than once she encounters opposite opinions or intentions within Chilean society.

Alexis Lynn Howe – Rethinking disappearance in Chilean Post-coup narratives – Minnesota

(unpublished doctorate University of Minnesota) – promoter: Dr. Ana Forcinito – 2011 173 Paltridge – Discourse analysis – p.166 174 Memory appears 49 times while human rights emerge 20 times in 12 pages.

55

changes are published in the “Documentos de Trabajo Educativo: Pedagogía de la Memoria y

Educación en Derechos Humanos” magazine175. Therefore I conclude that memory is the

foundation on which all other activities of Villa Grimaldi, especially the education of human

rights, are built.

In texts that are a part of the website or of exhibitions, whether permanent or temporary,

tortura (torture), testimonios (testimonies), detenidos (detainees) and Terranova (the name of

Villa Grimaldi under leadership of the DINA) often emerge. In combination, these words

correlate to the past of the peace park seeing that former detainees testify about the torture

that took place in Cuartel Terranova. The repetition of these elements emphasis once more

the earlier observed involvement and empathy with the former victims. In the context of the

activities of the oral archive these terminologies rather logically, appear again frequently.

The recurrently emerging word leyendo (read, interpret, reading) on the website is more

difficult to interpret. At first glance leyendo seems out of place because no obvious

connection can be made between its meaning and Villa Grimaldi. Up till now, one of the goals

of the Corporation is indeed to encourage the debate on reconciliation and human rights.

Having to interpret the symbolism and history presented in the park and on the website is one

of the ways in which the Corporation tries to commence and enhance this debate.

The biggest surprise however, is the evaporation of the term reconciliation. Presented as one

of the main goals and as a suspected narrative, the absence of this concept is not easily

explained. Keeping in mind the indirect way of promoting reconciliation through the

aesthetic design, I do not tend to believe a simple elucidation of dismissing reconciliation as

objective suffices. Much more suitable would be to say that reconciliation is also only

implicitly apparent in the current discourse of Villa Grimaldi. This statement is defendable

for the reason that reconciliation cannot be instructed. Not only does it take time to work

through the mourning process of these atrocities, but it also takes deliberation and

175 Área de Educación /Corporación Parque por la Paz Villa Grimaldi - Acerca de los Cuadernos de

Trabajos Educativos – Embajada del Reino de los Paises Bajos - Santiago – year 1 – Vol. 2 – 2010 – p. 3

56

consideration before one can actually move on to reconciliation176. Reconciliation is indeed

more than knowing how to live with the past. Willingness of the different polarised segments

of society is necessary to make sure opposite factions listen to each other and respect each

other in search for mutual understanding that may eventually lead to reconciliation 177 .

Consequently it is possible that reconciliation is only discreetly noticeable. The appearance of

‘leyendo’ in the discourse of Villa Grimaldi’s website can be proof of this indirect presence.

However, the use of the term is the only evidence, making this statement rather fragile.

The usage of antonyms in texts does often enhance the already existing contrast between the

opposite words178. Part of their significance in discourse analysis, is that they underline and

pass part of their meaning to the context in which they appear. The Villa Grimaldi

Corporation uses rather a lot of antonyms, although they often cope with similar topics. Using

antonyms, they try to enlarge the difference between the atrocities of the past and the defence

of human rights in the present and future. For instance, both Cuartel Terranova, as the

equivalent of torture, and Villa Grimaldi , the correspondent of human rights, are

consequently used to insure and underline the distinction between two eras . Likewise, a

distinction is made between interrogators and prisoners, oblivion and memory, inferno and

paradise… Through the use of these antonyms the Villa Grimaldi Corporation draws more

attention to the importance of human rights. Accordingly the conjunction structures used to

connect phrases or sections indicate contrasting comparison179.

In this context the use of dictatorship and democracy is rather intriguing. The Villa Grimaldi

Corporation uses these terms as antonyms, making democracy the most appropriated form of

organising the state while defending and portraying human rights. This point of view is

176 Berber Bevernage - We victims and survivors declare the past to be in the present’ Time, Historical

(In)justice and the Irrevocable – Ghent – (unpublished doctorate at the University of Ghent – promoter

Prof. dr. Gita Deneckere) – p. 238 177 Antoon De Baets – Waarheidscommissies als protohistorici – in: VVN-berichten – nr. 17 – 2002 – p.

17 178 Paltridge – Discourse analysis – p.134 179 Examples of these contrasting comparison conjunctions are: pero, contra, sin...

Indeed, also time conjuctions are often uses, given that in exhibitions and on the website the history of

Villa Grimaldi is portrayed.

Paltridge – Discourse analysis – p.40

57

similar to the idea of former president Patricio Aylwin when declaring ‘nunca más’180. Not

only did he hope to prevent another dictatorship, but he also hoped to prevent dissonance and

vengeance. Getting to know the truth and promoting reconciliation were his ways of making

democracy work, given the circumstances. Probably at an unconscious level, the Villa

Grimaldi Corporation agrees partly with him. In the writings resulting from seminars,

democracy is indeed often cited when talking about memory and human rights181.

Words with emotional resonances actively contribute to the experience of visitors. I refer

again to the process of identification of visitors with victims that bring the past experience

into the present life182. Critical discourse analysis tries to identify these emotionally loaded

words to understand how the discourse is influenced by them and how they can affect the

perception and discourse of visitors183. The word ‘swimming pool’ is a word which usually

refers to a fun experience. However, former detainees associate the term with torture. When

identifying with former detainees, the swimming pool suddenly does not feel so much like

fun. The swimming pool becomes a symbol of torture, even for the visitor.

Some words however seem to have no connection to emotions. Because of the context in

which they appear, they are evidentially associated with sentiment. The word ‘tower’ for

instance, has no emotional impact on the average visitor of Villa Grimaldi. However, former

detainees associate the word with the implementation of torture. When identification of

visitors with victims can be accomplished, the tower does gain an emotional connection, even

though only in a mild form. The tower than becomes even for the visitors, a symbol of torture

that is instantly but unconsciously connected to a feeling of repulsion The emotional

180 Stern – Reckoning with Pinochet – p.31 181 Corporación Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz - Ciudadanía y Memorias. Desarrollo de Sitios de

Conciencia para el aprendizaje en Derechos Humanos. Seminario y Taller - p. 13-14 / 55-72

Corporación Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz - Ciudad y Memorias. Desarrollo de Sitios de Conciencia

en el Chile actual. Seminario y Taller p. 13-14/ 100-109 182 I refer to the part in which I explained the involvement of the Villa Grimaldi Corporation with

former detainees. Footnote 31, explains that museums often use different forms of identification to

overcome a sense of otherness some visitors experience. Emotionally tying a victim to a visitor is one of

these techniques.

Ochsner - Understanding the Holocaust through the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum - p. 242 183 Wodak – Critical linguistics and critical discourse analysis – p. 206

58

connotations of these expressions generate on a conscious or unconscious level, an antipathy

and aversion form frictions of human rights.

E. ANALYSING ANOTHER LANGUAGE

It is always difficult to analyse a language that is not your native one. Certainly, Grice is right

that there are difficulties in getting to know differences in maxims. Detecting underlying

meanings and differences in nuances are not an easy job. Despite my efforts to overcome

these difficulties, it is assumable that I will have missed certain elements. However, I am quite

certain that I did not miss any important or defining differences in connotation or denotation.

As suggested by Brian Paltridge, I did compare my own inquiry with the ones of others.

Michael Lazarra stated for instance, that Pedro Matta, a former detainee, does not succeed in

transcending the local history of Villa Grimaldi to a general one184. The main focus of his

discourse is still a personal story of captivation in Villa Grimaldi. Only implicitly the

attempted general connections can be observed. Lazarra’s observation fits my findings on the

partly neglecting of general history. It also confirms the closeness of Villa Grimaldi with

former detainees. Steve Stern on the other hand, emphasises the fight for remembrance in

Villa Grimaldi185. Therefore he substantiates the remembrance aspect and partly the memory

aspect of my own analysis. Following, Gomèz-Barris confirms the idea that the narrative of the

past had become a resource for political action186. Not only does this confirm the fight for

human rights, but also the fight for justice. Likewise, Hume concludes that contrasting

opinions are still present in Chile187. Contradictory to my own conclusion, she believes a lot of

public memory sites focus on living in the present, and thus follow in the footsteps of the

government. Villa Grimaldi follows the government only to a certain extent, for instance by

promoting democracy and only indirectly encouraging reconciliation, but their involvement

with former victims encourages them to go beyond. In contrast to Hume’s hypothesis, Villa

184 Lazzara – Chile in transition. - p. 142 185 Stern – Reckoning with Pinochet – p.175 186 Macarena Gómez-Barris - Witness Citizenship: The Place of Villa Grimaldi in Chilean Memory – in:

Sociological Forum - Vol. 25 - Nr. 1 - 2010 - p. 28 187 Howe – Rethinking disappearance in Chilean Post-coup narratives – p. 243

59

Grimaldi is trying to keep the past alive. The emphasis on memory and the condemnation of

oblivion, prove my point.

F. COMBINING ALL ELEMENTS

I started this subsection by saying I suspected four different types of discourse: a museum

discourse, a human rights discourse, a reconciliation discourse and a remembrance discourse

based on the memories of former detainees. I have indeed found proof of the alleged museum

discourse, especially in the use of the direct and formal language. In addition, the symbolism

and meaning of each element of the expositions were clarified and the large themes were

divided into diverse smaller ones to create different exhibitions. The only deviation of the

discourse usage is the possibility that the Corporation is to closely involved with former

captives, meaning that some parts of the stories might be neglected to tell.

I can indeed conclude that a human rights discourse exists within the textual discourse of

Villa Grimaldi. Not only is there a frequent recurrence of the word, but the battle for human

rights is even literally stated in the constitution act. The connotation or emotional connection

of divers other words, such as ‘nunca más’ and ‘the tower’, also highlight the importance of

human rights. Finally, the use of antonyms that emphasises the contrast between human

rights and words that equal atrocities or the horrid past, lead me to conclude that the human

rights discourse is definitely present in the overall discourse of the Corporation of Villa

Grimaldi.

Even the remembrance discourse can easily be sustained. The memory question is discussed

rather severely in seminars. At the same time the publication “Documentos de Trabajo

Educativo: Pedagogía de la Memoria y Educación en Derechos Humanos” as part of the

educational wing of Villa Grimaldi, tries to keep up with the most recent developments of the

memory debate. Half of the webpages on the Villa Grimaldi website as well as the temporary

and permanent exhibition panels deal with some part of its history. Former detainees are even

supported and encouraged to tell their stories, since testimonies are gathered in the oral

archive to preserve memory of the past and some testimonies are partly used for educational

purposes. Testimony and history are indeed emphasised words in the vocabulary of Villa

60

Grimaldi. Whether the relationship between the Peace Park and former detainees is to close, I

cannot say. I simply want to show the different angles that can help explain Villa Grimaldi’s

discourse.

The discourse on reconciliation is not as apparent as the other three. I defended earlier that

reconciliation is only implicitly or indirectly observable in Villa Grimaldi’s discourse. I believe

the arguments of inability to instruct reconciliation and the fact that reconciliation is a

process, still, stand. However, the frequent practice of the word ‘leyendo’ is the only evidence

in defence of the statement. Especially the fact that justice is defended a few times and that

the reports to the government never even mention reconciliation, makes the argument less

credible. No other researcher mentions detecting that particular reconciliation discourse.

Therefore I conclude that the alleged reconciliation discourse is absent in the textual

discourse of Villa Grimaldi.

The combination of the three detected discourses does confide with the envisioned visitors of

researchers and former detainees. However, it also means that Villa Grimaldi, although

referring to texts of the truth commissions, no longer noticeably follows all the guidelines

and concerns of the government. Besides keeping certain parallels with the government, like

promoting human rights and democracy, the Villa Grimaldi Corporation also deviates by

creating their own emphasis on the rights of victims and the need for justice. Although Villa

Grimaldi states on paper to strive for reconciliation, their textual discourse contradicts.

Essentially this means that the internal Chilean debate on how to preserve, cope and live with

the memory of the Pinochet era is reflected in Villa Grimaldi’s discourse.

2.2.4 DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF IMAGES

Recognizing images and adding meaning to them is one of the basic forms of

communication. Little children start pointing to objects or images to indicate what they want,

before they can talk188. Before the development of writing, prehistoric caveman drew animals

188 Brian B. Shulman, Nina C. Capone (eds.) – Language development. Foundations, processes, and

clinical applications – Jones and Barlett Publishers LLC – London – 2010 – p.7

61

on rocks to worship them or hoping it would help them be successful in the actual hunt189.

Indeed, the first forms of writing consisted of a string of successive images representing

relatively literally what they mend190. With these examples I simply want to show that the

communicative power of images should not be underestimated. In this analysis, I will try to

break through to the deeper and symbolic meaning of the images used by the Villa Grimaldi

Corporation in order to detect the discourse of their images.

A. PERSONAL PERSPECTIVE

In this first phase of Lesters’ analysis of images, the intent is to detect early elements of

association and attraction through the personal perceptions of the researcher. Since it would

be relatively impossible to describe all perceptions of all the individual images, I will limit my

descriptions to the most essential and excessive ones. For instance, the pieces sketched on

certain folders remind me of the idea behind the mosaic signs191. Lazarra believes that these

fragments of tiles try to piece together fragments of the past192. Consequently I connect this

interpretation of Lazarra to the different pieces on the folders.

Another manifest type of images are the portraits of disappeared and deceased victims of the

Pinochet dictatorship. I instantaneously linked the images to similar ones created of Jews

during the Second World War193. The faces of the disappeared were also frequently present in

Chilean and Argentinian streets after the resolution of the dictatorship, when family members

asked for truth about their loved ones and justice for the people responsible 194 . Nelson

189 Günter Berghaus (ed.) – New perspectives on prehistoric art – Praeger Publishers – Westport – 2004 –

p.7 190 Steven Roger Fischer – A history of writing – Reaktion Books Ltd. – London – 2001 – p. 34 191 Examples of these folders are Corporación Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz – Contexto Histórico y

Partidos Políticos de la Izquierda Chilena. Video 1: actores politicos de la sociedad Chilena. 1960-1973

and Corporación Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz – Memoria y Testimonio. Video 3: Contruyendo la

memoria: el parquet por la paz Villa Grimaldi. 192 Lazzara – Chile in transition. - p. 141 193 Jews had to carry around identification cards that the Nazis issued. The picture in this document had

to show the full face.

Marianne Hirsch – Surviving images: Holocaust Photographs and the work of Postmemory – in: The

Yale journal of Criticism – vol. 14 – nr. 1 – Yale University and John Hopkins University Press – 2001 –

p.27 194 Thomas C. Wright – State Terrorism in Latin America: Chile, Argentina and International Human

Rights – Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc. – Plymouth – 2007 – p.186

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believes that the photo of a disappeared person stays the same over time and cannot evolve

which calls for a timeless and enduring memory195. I believe she means that the mourning

process cannot be completed as long as relatives of a victim do not understand what happened

and how the victim experienced his/her death196 . Additionally, I make a connection to a

passage of Felman in ‘The Juridical Unconscious: Trials and Traumas in the Twentieth

Century’, in which she states that the disappeared are expressionless197. They haunt the post-

dictatorial society unable to tell their story and often deprived of their human face. Forensics

can indeed help identify skeletons in anonymous or mass graves, but until that moment the

disappeared remain faceless. Showing the faces of these disappeared people can indeed be

seen as more than a form of protest. Showing those photographs gives the disappeared and

their remains back their voice and their humanity.

Two of the images on the websi-te of Villa Grimaldi grabbed my attention because of one

particular element, namely a rose198. On the pages of the wall of names and the register of

testimonies a bright red rose attracts the attention to the foreground, while the darker

background appears to be stone. The photograph in general reminds me of roses at a grave of

a loved one, which makes sense in the contexts of the wall of names. The wall contains the

names of all deceased victims of Villa Grimaldi. The association between a graveyard and a

register of testimonies does not make much sense.

In contrast, the pictures used in the brochure ‘Rutas themáticas discriminación’ do make sense

given their context. The flag of a nation crossed out, a women’s mouth silenced and a

coloured hand covered, symbolise relatively literally the discrimination of ideology, women

195 Alice A. Nelson – Conclusion: Marketing Discontent. The Political Economy of Memory in Latin

America – in: Ksenija Bilbija, Leigh A. Payne (eds.) – Accounting for Violence. Marketing memory in

Latin America – Duke University Press – Durham – 2011 – p.359 196 James Moorey – Living with grieve and mourning – Manchester University Press – Manchester –

1995 – p.104 197 Shoshana Felman – The Juridicial Unconscious: Trials and Traumas in the Twentieth Century –

Harvard University Press – Camebridge – 2002 – p. 13 198 Bloomers’ principle of the selectiveness of the mind believes that most elements of a picture leave

our brain without being processed. The parts on the image that are consciously processed are the parts

that attract our attention. Gestalt and constructivism believe that perceptual grouping and figure

background separation help attract the attention.

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and race. The white strip covering up the different aspects, contrasts with the grey picture and

therefore emphasis their presence.

Other pictures, showing destroyed buildings, soldiers with guns, water cannons and people

chained to fences are easily associated with protest and war. Photographs portraying some

form of demonstration often contain different forms of communication, whether they are

symbols or words. According to Bloomer, a devotee of the cognition theory, the combination

of words and images is the strongest form of communication. The colourful picture of the

retrieval of Villa Grimaldi can thus be seen as a strong form of communication, since it

combines both. The expression ‘Chile exige justicia’ (Chile demands justice) followed by a

peace sign can easily be uncovered. These words and signs were written at a time where

democracy was just reinstated and the demolition of Cuartel Terranova had started. The

writing on the wall was meant as protest against the demolition and an objection against the

human rights infractions that once occurred within these walls.

As noted earlier, these readings are only a first indicator of the analysis. It shows how the

attention to a certain picture is drawn by using colour and shapes. Subsequent, connections

between the pictures and general knowledge is made.

B. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

The historical perspective of images helps providing a tradition through which the technical

aspects of images can be explained more easily. The Villa Grimaldi’s image portfolio consists

of two types of images, namely photographs and sketches. Drawings have a considerably

longer history than photographs in view of the fact that prehistoric men already drew upon

cave walls. The technique of drawing did change over time199. In addition, the materials with

which one can draw changed, especially since the digital revolution. The sketches of the Villa

Grimaldi Corporation are however modest and drawn in black and white. Blindfolded people,

deprived of any facial characteristics are drawn in straightforward forms as well as the

reconstructions of the buildings surrounding them. Seeing that no photographs were taken of

torture in order of keeping it hidden, the only possible way of visualising and reconstruction

199 Patrick Maynard – Drawing distinctions. The varieties of graphic expression – Cornell University

Press – New York – 2005 – p.4

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the environmental conditions in which victims had to live is by drawing. No artistic goals

were pursued.

Although the basic idea for photography was expressed in the 16th century, it has a fairly

recent tradition 200 . Photographs can have different colours, different perspectives and

differences in sharpness, all of which combine in different styles. On the other hand, one can

also divided photographs in different groups depending on what subjects they portray. This

dissection is the most useful when looking at the photographs used by the Villa Grimaldi

Corporation. I can detect portraits, war photographs, every day photographs and what I label

press photographs. Especially war photographs and press photos may contain manipulations.

C. TECHNICAL PERSPECTIVE

The technical skills needed to create the sketches used by Villa Grimaldi are relatively

limited. The colour pallet only contains black contrasting the white background. Therefore

the white spaces seem predominant, but in reality it only frames the image with a border. The

contrast between both colours makes it easier to notice that the most important elements of

the sketchers are slightly off. The relationship between prisoner and militia is portrayed

slightly to the right of the centre and the detainees sitting in the cell are drawn slightly to the

left of the centre. However, this does not mean that the eye is not attracted to the central part

of the drawing. Contrary, because of all the activity the fullest part of the drawing is darker

than the emptier one, so the eye is deduced to the central elements. Combined with the

proximity of the blindfolded prisoners and their assumed common fate, the brain makes a

connection between them201. The similarity principle and the law of continuance, also a part of

the Gestalt theory, do not apply in this situation.

Although one sketch does not contain depth, simple techniques are used to provide

perspective to the other sketches. The sketch of the cell uses geometrical and illusionary

200 Helmut Gernsheim – A concise history of photography. 3th revised edition – General Publishing

Company, Ltd. – Ontario – 1986 – p.4 201 Lester – Visual communication. – p. 54

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perspective to create profundity202. The sketch containing the van, creates depth through

conceptual techniques, which is the combination of a multiview perspective and a social

perspective203. The van, drawn at an angle helps create an illusion of deepness by showing

different sides of the object in one image (multiview perspective). Nevertheless, the most

interesting technique is the social perspective, where the most important or authority bearing

figure is drawn larger and closer than the rest, in order to insinuate a power relation between

the different elements. The military is indeed drawn larger and closer than the detainees in

the sketch, meaning that they are in a position of power.

Contrary, the photographs on the website are mostly colour photos of different elements

situated in the park. It is striking that the colours red, green and black (or grey) are

predominant in the pictures. All three are part of the six basic colours. The green or red

colour is highlighted in combination with black, but the arrangement of green and red

compliments each other204. The green nature surrounding the roses and recreations of the

tower thus create a sense of cohesiveness and peacefulness on the photographs. Indeed, this

cohesiveness fits rather well with the idea of the peace park. However, analogous to the layout

of the park, the peacefulness of the photographs contradicts the atrocities explained in the

accompanying text.

The majority of photographs in exhibitions and brochures include no other colours than

black, white and grey. Part of the explanation can be found in the fact that the Villa Grimaldi

Corporation uses photos released in newspapers. Another clarification is that Villa Grimaldi

utilises pictures taken by regular people in a time where colour cameras were not as

widespread as today. Bucher believes black and white pictures create more dynamic and

202 The geometrical perspective draws nearer objects at the lower part of the picture, while objects

farther away only appear above an invisible vertical line. Illusionary perspective on the other hand,

draws the elements closest to the observer bigger than the distant ones to create the illusion of depth.

Lester – Visual communication – p. 48-49 203 Corporación Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz – Exposición Villa Grimaldi Presente, pasado y futuro.

– Billboard 13

Lester – Visual communication – p. 49 204 Julie Colins – Color Mixing Handbook – David & Charles – Cincinnati – 2007 – p.16

66

enhances the voice of the image205. Because one is less distracted by colour the viewer can

focus more on the subject of the photograph. The black and white colour in portraits adds an

element of nostalgia. The nostalgic feeling corresponds well with the portraits of Pinochet’s

victims in Villa Grimaldi, referring to a better time, before any atrocities and before the

dictatorship. The combination of the technical perspective and the style of newspapers, help

create indirectly a more focused and emotionally charged element to Villa Grimaldi’s

photographs.

In the Villa Grimaldi photographs, depth is created in diverse ways using alterations in size,

space, light or textural gradients. None add special meaning to the photographs or their

signification. Forms however, make pictures more memorable because the brain processes

them meticulously, according to Lester. In the exposition ‘Presente, pasado y futuro’ for

instance, straight lines are abundant. The picture on billboard 9 with the title ‘El Terrorismo

de Estado’ combines diagonal and horizontal lines. The similar body position of the people put

down on the ground creates an implied diagonal line between them. The eye of the viewer

therefore follows the line from the lower left corner to the top right one, connecting the fate

of the four people. In the right corner the diagonal line is broken by a horizontal one, adding

rigidity to the image concurring with anthropologist Evelyn Hatcher206. Lester believes the

high horizontal line makes the viewer feel confined207. Then again, I do not know if the

stiffness of the photograph is only explained by the horizontal lines. I believe the subject of

the photograph contributes. The captivated people are confined in their ways to move,

because one person is holding a gun threatening to shoot them if they do not follow up his

orders. The captives probably remain still, as demanded by the gunman hoping not get shot,

adding a sense of confinement.

Billboard 17 ‘La lucha por la democratia’ also combines different lines. The horizontal lines

are broken down by vertical ones. The vertical line stops the eye and encourages the spectator

205 Chris Bucher – Black and White Digital Photography Photo Workshop – Wiley Publishing Inc. –

Indianapolis – 2011 – p.5 206 Evelyn Payne Hatcher - Visual metaphors: a methodological study in visual communication –

University of New Mexico Press – Albuquerque – 1981 – p.81 207 Lester – Visual communication – p. 42

67

to explore the space surrounding the mark, in this case stressing the banner denouncing

torture. Nonetheless, the eye is drawn to an incomplete isosceles triangle, formed by people.

The triangle adds dynamic and direction to the picture increasing the motion of people

seeking coverage behind each other against the water cannon. The fact that the protesters

stand their ground and do not run away despite a violent reaction on their actions, can imply

that the battle against torture and therefore human rights must be continued, no matter what.

Finally, the pictures used in the brochure ‘Rutas themáticas discriminación’ are the only

photographs in which retouching or manipulation can be proven. The pieces of tape are

clearly added afterwards, given that the edges of the tape exceed the edges of the

photographs. Without the retouching, the photograph would miss all the intentions and

connotations. The retouching thus, added value without hiding its underlying objectives.

D. ETHICAL PERSPECTIVE

The ethical questions surrounding the themes of Villa Grimaldi are twofold. Primarily, one

can ask the question what measures can or should be taken to defend a certain opinion.

Secondary, one can ask how a traumatic or violent past should be dealt with and how those

responsible should be held accountable. According to Brian Loveman and Elizabeth Lira,

Chile has developed a tradition when dealing with a disruptive past, which they call ‘Vía

Chilena de reconciliación política’208. Loveman and Lira’s thesis is based on the solutions of

political crises between 1818 and 2006. Certain groups of Chileans have very different

opinions on how to organise society and the political landscape. With every political

turnaround during that period, the opposite groups found reasons to believe the current

president acted or had acted unconstitutionally209. These accusations often went hand in hand

with words such as ‘dictatorship’ and ‘tyranny’. Claiming they saved the homeland and

restored the constitutional government, the opposition believed preventive detention of

opponents, executions and torture were justified.

208 Although this paragraph is mainly based on one article of Brian Loveman and Elizabeth Lira, other

historians like Steve Stern and Paul Drake, use this terminology referring to this Chilean tradition.

Loveman, Lira. - Truth, Justice, Reconciliation, and Impunity as Historical Themes – p.44 209 Ibid. p.45-46

68

When the conflicts ended, civilians asked for reconciliation and resolution 210 . Instead of

dealing with the differences of Chilean society, the newly established government often chose

to focus on nationalism and similarities such as catholic values and culture. Repeatedly, a

political compromise was necessary in order to maintain peace211. In imitation of the Spanish

colonial tradition, amnesty, reparations and requests for forgiveness were made to encourage

harmony and peace. Members of the opposition responsible for these violent political actions

saw amnesty as political absolution, while victims of these atrocities only saw injustice and

impunity212 . Only occasionally, initiatives were taken to discover the truth of the events.

Considering the government hoped to establish a period of tranquillity, they supress or at

least restructure the social memories about the event 213 . Therefore commissions and

constitutional procedures were habitually temporary, although claiming to follow universal

religion, morality and legal principles. As explained in the introduction, the democratic

governments subsequent to Pinochet’s dictatorship followed similar strategies. These

circumstances and traditions form the foundation for the ethical debate in which the Villa

Grimaldi Corporation tries to find its own place in dealing with Pinochet’s reign of terror.

The consistent promotion of human rights makes me believe that the Villa Grimaldi

Corporation promotes a peaceful way of resolving conflict. Additional evidence to

substantiate this hypothesis is supplied by the publication of conventions against torture, war

crimes and crimes against humanity. Likewise, the use of the collection of images, which

contains both violent and non-violent pictures, supports this impression. Pictures in which

violence is used in the interaction between different people are consequently used when

portraying Pinochet’s dictatorship. On the other hand, differences of opinion happening

before or after the Pinochet era are portrayed as non-violent manifestations and

demonstrations. In this fashion the Villa Grimaldi Corporation does not follow the tradition

of the ‘Vía Chilena de reconciliación política’ in which a part of violence is allowed. In an

210 Loveman, Lira. - Truth, Justice, Reconciliation, and Impunity as Historical Themes - p.46-47 211 Ibid. p.48 212 Brian Loveman, Elizabeth Lira – Las Ardientes Cenizas Del Olvido: Vía Chilena de Reconciliación

Política 1932 -1994 – LOM – Santiago – 2000 – p.541 213 Loveman, Lira. - Truth, Justice, Reconciliation, and Impunity as Historical Themes – p.53

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indirect way the Villa Grimaldi Corporation takes position in the ethical debate on how to

manage conflict, namely in a peaceful way.

In addition to the disruption with Chilean tradition of managing differences, Villa Grimaldi

also deviates slightly from the traditional way of dealing with a traumatic or violent past.

Indeed, elements of Chilean culture can be detected in the images. Some pictures with its

captions, emphasis catholic values such as respect for the dead and the purifying value of

water. Although stated in their constitution act and part of religious ideology, reconciliation is

not apparent in any image. Even though the Villa Grimaldi Corporation supports the search

for truth, they hope it will lead to justice instead of impunity. These ideas are not only

portrayed in titles, but also in pictures, whether in a direct or indirect way. Some pictures

contain sentences like ‘Chile exige justicia’ (Chile demands justice) and ‘En Chile se tortura y

la tv calla’ (In Chile torture is used, but the television stays silent) stating quite literary the

demand for justice214. Other photographs show these demands in indirect way. The black and

white portraits of victims are indeed often used to demand justice. The pictures of the main

perpetrators indicate a form of social justice despite the plea of the truth commissions not to

publish the names and leave the determination of guilt to the courts of justice.

Finally the Villa Grimaldi Corporation did not follow all the governmental rules of the

restructuring of memories about the past. In theory, the Villa Grimaldi Peace Park fits in

perfect with the recommendations of the truth commission. Reparations should be made by

accepting the truth and restoring the moral dignity of the victims, said the Rettig

Commission, both of which are exemplified in Villa Grimaldi215. Pictures of the wall of names,

the rose garden, memorials… are all in line off these reparations. The big ideals of truth and

214 One picture is used on the billboards and in the brochure of the exposition Corporación Villa

Grimaldi Parque por la Paz – Exposición Villa Grimaldi Presente, pasadoy futuro. (Brochure p. 11,

billboard 17) The other can be found on the webpage, subfolder Historia, Recuperación Villa Grimaldi. 215 Chilean Nation Commission on Truth and Reconciliation – Report of the Chilean National

Commission on Truth and Reconciliation – University of Notre Dame Press – Indiana – Vol. I/II – 1993

– p. 1057

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justice are indeed propagated by the Villa Grimaldi Corporation216. However forgiveness and

reconciliation are only indirectly apparent in texts and absent in the images. Undeniably, the

truth commission specified that condition for reconciliation should be created, which is then

again in accordance with Villa Grimaldi. Notwithstanding, the corporation did exhibit names

and photos of the people responsible for atrocities breaking the guidelines of the truth

commission. They are also battling against those willing to leave behind, forget or burke the

events of Pinochet’s dictatorship, such as insinuated by President Aylwin, Pope John Paul II

and President Lagos who emphasised the need to leave the past behind and live in the

future217.

Given the circumstances I believe the government fits well within the golden mean

perspective combined with the golden rule of Lester’s ethical philosophies, since the

government tried to find middle ground between two extreme positions and Christian

tradition was honoured218. Defining the ethical philosophy of Villa Grimaldi is less evident.

Christian values are honoured (golden rule), different positions have been taken into account

(utilitarianism principle) and the peace park is in a way a negotiation between different

extreme positions (golden mean perspective). I therefore believe that the ethical principles as

prepared by Lester can merely be seen as a guideline.

E. CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE

Cognitive perception theory believes culture plays a tremendous role in comprehending

signs. Barthes even believes the sequencing of signs or codes build op the narrative of

pictures 219 . I will follow the division of codes issued by Arthur Asa Berger 220 . Berger

distinguishes four codes specifically analogic, metonymic, displaced and condensed codes.

216 Chilean Nation Commission on Truth and Reconciliation – Report of the Chilean National

Commission on Truth and Reconciliation – University of Notre Dame Press – Indiana – Vol. I/II – 1993

– p. 1057 217 Julia Paley – Marketing Democracy: Power and Social Movements in Post-dictatorship Chile –

University of California Press – Berkeley – 2001 – p.127

Stern – Reckoning with Pinochet – p.326 218 Lester – Visual communication – p. 125-126 219 Ibid. – p. 65-66

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The best example of an analogic code which combines signs with mental comparisons is the

logo of Villa Grimaldi221. The logo refers to the sealed black gate, through which detainees

were brought into the former detention centre. In the middle of the gate a white stripe

references the sail, put on the gate at the inauguration symbolising that the atrocities would

never happen again222. The white strip also forms a plus sign, enhancing the symbol of ‘nunca

mas’ or never again. Analogous to the layout of the park, the sign could also mark the place

as worthy of distinction. One could also make the connection with the religious symbol of a

cross standing on a grave, recognising the casualties the dictatorship made. Behind the gate

and wall, a tree attracts the attention. The tree can reference the remaining plants of the

former garden, kept not only to symbolise the joy of the former restaurant but also to stand

for all Chilean plants223. Personally I would think the tree is a representation of the three of

life, contrasting the atrocities. The logo therefore, is a clear metaphor for everything Villa

Grimaldi stands for.

Another picture showing an analogic code is a photograph of Alberto Recaredo Gallardo

Pachecho holding one of his grandchildren224. The photo seems fairly ordinary and resembles

general photographs. Ochsner believes people relate to these kinds of pictures, because of

their familiarity225. Similarly, personal objects, photographs and fragments of victims are

gathered in the Rieles Monument and de memory room226. Therefore the reality of Villa

220 David Zemmels, School of Mass Communication Loyola University New Orleans – Visual

Communication Theories – in:

http://loyno.edu/~zemmels/A201/lecture/visual_theory/comm_theory.html - consulted on 04.07.2012 221 Corporación Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz - Ciudadanía y Memorias. Desarrollo de Sitios de

Conciencia para el aprendizaje en Derechos Humanos. Seminario y Taller - Frontpage 222 The extensive discussion of these elements can be found in ‘2.2.2 Analysis of the museum and its

settings’.

The logo can be found in appendix 1 – 1.1 Logo of Villa Grimaldi – p. 142 223 Corporación Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz – Audioguías: Pista – Ombú 224 One picture is used on the billboards and in the brochure of the exposition Corporación Villa

Grimaldi Parque por la Paz – Exposición Villa Grimaldi Presente, pasadoy futuro. Brochure – p. 10 225 Ochsner - Understanding the Holocaust through the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum - p. 242 226 The exhibition areas contain personal photographs, diaries, bonefragments and buttons, all

seemingly very average objects. The power of these objects lays in their ordinariness, because any of

these objects might be our own. Therefore we easily relate to the victims, facilitation the identification

process.

Ochsner - Understanding the Holocaust through the U.S. Holocaust Memorial - p. 243

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Grimaldi becomes more real and the identification process will help enhance the message

contained within the photograph and the museum, in this case the rejection and convicting of

torture and human rights abuses.

Metonymic codes consist of a collection of signs that will encourage the viewer to make

associations and assumptions227. As noted earlier, the combination of roses and stone, instantly

reminded me of flowers on a grave symbolising respect for the death and referring to the

victims of the Pinochet dictatorship. The roses are indeed used by the Corporation to

symbolise female victims and are therefore also a displaced code.

Photographs of the cell, the tower and the rose garden are examples of displaced codes. The

connotation of one set of signs is transferred to another228. Just as cigarettes and lips once

equated sexuality, the reconstructions of Villa Grimaldi symbolise torture, atrocities and

extreme living conditions. Every photograph containing these reconstructions in combination

with nature thus highlights the contradiction between the violent part of Villa Grimaldi’s

history and the present interpretation. The rose garden attracts the attention because of its

colour and seemingly peaceful nature, but every rose resembles a female victim of the

dictatorship. Therefore they should help promote the identification process of the parks’

visitors. The wall of names is also a symbol of a displaced code. The hard and permanent

characteristic of stone is transferred to the memory of the casualties of Cartuel Terranova,

symbolising they will never be forgotten and neither will the atrocities that led to their deaths.

Lastly, photographs of the park in itself can be defined as condensed codes 229 . The

combination of different codes leads to the creation of a new one. The symbolic nature of the

Villa Grimaldi Peace Park combined with the frequent appearances of signs automatically

transforms the park into a condensed code. The park is a symbol of truth, respect, memory,

remembrance, reconciliation and human rights. For some, it will symbolise disruption or loss,

depending on the personal connection to the location. Either way, the park is a condensed

code in Chilean society.

227 Lester – Visual communication – p. 66 228 Ibid. – p. 66 229 Ibid. – p. 66-67

73

Most of these symbols derive their meaning from society in general or specific groups of

society. Truth, reconciliation and the emphasis on human rights can be linked to the largest

part of Chilean society. Supporters of Pinochet and former military often still refuse to talk

about the past, meaning they do not support the truth claim230. Truth, justice, remembrance

and respect are four concepts derived from former victims and their family members. Seeing

that these people are part of the Villa Grimaldi Corporation, were the initial spokesmen trying

to save the former detention centre and are still one of the most important and biggest visitor

groups, it is not without reason that the Corporation adopts symbols and codes from them.

Lastly the Villa Grimaldi Corporation also uses an international human rights discourse,

meaning that they use tactics and elements to promote human rights similar to the ones used

all over the world. Evidence of this universal discourse can be found in the fact that brochures

of the United Nations are used, the Declaration of the Universal Human Rights is frequently

cited and the fallen are honoured by inscribing their names in a stone wall231. This means that

foreign visitors can find familiar elements in Villa Grimaldi’s discourse.

F. CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE

The images used by the Villa Grimaldi Corporation have various functions in the discourse.

Firstly, the images are used to support the story of the written or spoken text. Visualising

elements in combination with written text is seen as one of the strongest forms of

communication, according to Bloomer. The images intrinsically tell the same story in a less

detailed and oversimplified version. All the elements are there, but without general

knowledge of the situation and some form of direction, the images and the discourse

portrayed by these images, miss guidance.

Secondly, the discourse of the images consists of direct and indirect elements emphasising

direct and indirect messages. The use of colour emphasises the harmony between nature and

reconstructions of buildings, conform to the initial idea of creating a peace park that contrasts

230 Carlos Huneeus – El régimen de Pinochet – Editorial Sudamericana – Santiago – 2000 – p.599-622 231 Methodology, Education and Training Unit Research and Right to Development Branch Office of

the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Palais, des Nations Section of Education for

Peace and Human Rights Division for the Promotion of Quality Education Education Sector UNESCO –

Plan de acción. Programa Mundial para la educación en derechos humanos. Primera etapa – UNESCO –

Paris - 2006

74

the violent nature of the location’s history as Cuartel Terranova. The highlighting of elements

in pictures through the use of colour creates more indirect associations. The colour of roses

combined with a dark stone background can easily be linked a graveyard and respect for the

dead. The black and white colour of the sketches can be associated with mourning and

innocence. Especially the mourning aspect gives the indirect message of condemning torture.

Black or dark areas also repel people, according to light and colour theory. Therefore the

condemnation of torture is enhanced even more.

Forms, as part of images, not only help process the image more meticulously but the forms

also create a sense of direction. Following the law of continuance, our brain prefers

concatenation signifying that the eyes are more likely to follow the portrayed lines

incorporating everything that happens along that line. Consequently several photographs

condemn torture and encourage the peaceful solution of conflict in an indirect way. For

instance, the picture on the billboard ‘La lucha por la democratia’ with the water cannon

emphasises the commitment and devotion one has to maintain in defending human rights.

Although persistently defending human rights is not the obvious perception a visitor makes,

unconsciously the brain will make that connection especially in combination with the other

pictures of Villa Grimaldi. The associations made by the use of signs and codes definitely

influence the discourse of the images.

The photographs and sketches can be divided into three different stages on a timeline. The

photographs portraying the history up until Pinochet’s coup show only peaceful scenes

despite several photographs of demonstrations showing the division between Chilean people.

However, when the photographs expose the history of Pinochet’s reign, most pictures show

violence. Sometimes the violence is revealed relatively literally, for instance when a building

is blown up. At other times, violence is insinuated by the subject of the image or by the

creation of depth through a social perspective in which militia are drawn bigger than captives,

showing their relationship. Lastly, the period after the return of democracy is characterised by

the return of peaceful images. The battle against impunity and oblivion is visible, but is

conducted in a serene and non-violent way.

75

G. COMBINING ALL ELEMENTS

In the beginning of this section, I stated that I would try to break through to the symbolic

level of images in order to detect different discourses. I believe I have succeeded in detecting

these different discourses, starting with a museum discourse. The supporting role of pictures

in brochures and expositions attract visitors and encourages them to read the accompanying

text. The photographs of the website show the important element of the permanent park and

maps are drawn in order to clarify the broader historical context.

I can also conclude that a human rights discourse is present in the visual discourse of Villa

Grimaldi. The logo of the Corporation contains references to ‘nunca más’ or never again, a

terminology used to declare that human rights violations and torture will never happen again

in Chile. In addition, various pictures contain the condemnation of torture in a direct or

indirect way, for example in the portraits of victims. The consistent differentiation between

the use of violent and non-violent images in accordance with the different time periods, also

enhances the striving for the employment of the human rights.

Subsequently, I also found proof of a remembrance or memory discourse. Photographs of the

wall of names, memorials and the words on images ‘El olvido está lleno de memoria’ show the

initiatives taken to remember the history of Villa Grimaldi. The presence of the portraits of

victims of Villa Grimaldi, combined with indirect associations of certain photographs and

homages to these victims, proves that they will not be forgotten. The cross in the logo of Villa

Grimaldi also emphasises that the peace park is a place worth of distinction and existence.

Although I believe elements of religion are present in the visual discourse, reconciliation is

absolutely absent. References to the cross and symbolic purifying power of water show

defined similarities with the religious discourse. Indirect or potentially unconscious

indications of graveyards and respect for the dead strengthen this idea.

Similar to the language discourse the detected discourses match the envisioned visitors of

researchers and former detainees. Part of the visual discourse matches the recommendations

made by the truth commissions and the government. The emphasis on human rights,

remembrance and similarities between members of Chilean society correspond with the ideas

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of the government. However, the request to leave the past behind and move forward, is not

entirely met. Elements of the internal Chilean debate on how to preserve, cope and live with

the memory of the Pinochet dictatorship is reflected in Villa Grimaldi’s visual discourse.

2.3 CONCLUSION

Different kinds of history and memory live side by side, sometimes tied together in an inter-

subjective framework. Villa Grimaldi tells its own memory story of the Pinochet takeover and

the resulting dictatorship in a still politically and socially split society. The government has

made several attempts to unify and reconcile the different visions on the dictatorship. Their

attempts of restructuring and closing the memory box in hope of moving forward, collide

with resistance from victims and family members of disappeared people who are still battling

for justice and against the oblivion that is encouraged by Pinochet supporters. The question

remains which position Villa Grimaldi occupies in this debate. By taking a closer look at their

discourse, I was able to detect what aspects of memory are enhanced, why they are enhanced

and how they are emphasised.

Villa Grimaldi was founded as peace park to honour and commemorate the events that

occurred in the former DINA detention centre Cuartel Terranova. Accessible to all people,

including foreign tourists, the peace park fulfilled the role of museum, resulting in a museum

discourse. The recent changes in lay-out such as the adding of a banner on the outside wall

and the clarifying permanent billboards, enhance the role of museum. Exhibitions and folders

are written in a direct and formal language, making sure the narrative is transparent and

evident. The clever use of colour and images not only supports the displayed information, but

also attracts and guides visitors through the exhibition, making sure they understand the

main narrative.

Because of the clear connection between the peace park and its history as former detention

centre, Villa Grimaldi is in an ideal position to commemorate and describe past activities. The

Corporation shows a lot of attention for the testimonies of former detainees, seeing that they

organise guided tours led by them. In 2011, an oral archive was instated in order to gather

and make available testimonies of former victims. Some testimonies are used in exhibition,

77

brochures or educational packages, all stressing the importance of memory. The

remembrance and memory discourse is also emphasised through the organisation of

seminars dealing with questions on how to preserve memory and how to incorporate memory

in exhibitions and education.

Visually, remembrance is portrayed through the use of photographs of victims of Cuartel

Terranova, as well as the creation of reconstructions of buildings and living conditions. The

reconstructions of former detention buildings can be seen as an indictment of the actions of

the military. The militia had hoped to dissolve all the evidence of atrocities, hoping oblivion

would prevail. They succeeded in demolishing Cuartel Terranova, but concerned people made

sure Villa Grimaldi would not be forgotten or whipped away. Reconstructing the demolished

buildings symbolises that oblivion is filled with memory. The frequent use of the sentence ‘El

olvido está lleno de memoria’ confirms the importance and power of memory and

remembrance once more. The use of fragments of seemingly ordinary objects strengthens the

process of identification and the need to remember. Lastly, the wall of names and homage

monuments, at the back and the side of the park, symbolise that the victims will never be

forgotten, nor will the atrocities that led to their deaths.

Memory and remembrance form the foundation on which the importance and emphasis of

the human rights discourse is built. This prominence on human rights goes along with the

recommendations of the truth commissions. The consequent use of opposing elements

stresses the importance of human rights in an indirect way. Non-violent and peaceful images

always describe the periods before or after the dictatorship, while violent and aggressive

images illustrate the Pinochet era. The antonyms inferno – paradise and torture – respect, are

some examples of the opposing elements in language. Even the layout of the park contains

opposing components, seeing that the connotations of the gate and the reconstructions of

former detention buildings contrast the peacefulness of the natural elements in the park.

Colour use and differences in strength of light help create repulsion when dealing with

infractions of human rights. Several references to nunca más or never again in language, in

connotation of photographs and metaphoric use of Villa Grimaldi’s logo, stress once more the

importance of human rights.

78

When combining elements of the layout with images and their captions, different references

to religion appear. The cross for instance, emerges in different context and symbolises the

contrast between life and death. In the middle of the cross-shaped pathway, a fountain

symbolises that sins can be washed away and one is born again. Catholic values are unifying

element in Chilean society and fits therefore well within the recommendations of the truth

commissions.

Similarly, reconciliation is a catholic value and is one of the most notable, if not the most

import recommendation of the truth commission. The concept is even included in the

constitution act of Villa Grimaldi. However, only one element in the Corporation’s discourse

might point indirectly to reconciliation. Commemorating history can be a step in the

reconciliation process, when it encourages discussion between the different opposing parties

in order to create mutual understanding and common ground. Nevertheless I feel that

particularly one angle, namely the victim’s angle, is used. Because of the absence of the

general history in the permanent exhibition, the discourse is mainly based on the testimonies

of former detainees and the international judgment against torture and other human rights

violations. I believe the same message would come out when the military side of the story or

even the contradicting political opinions would be incorporated in Villa Grimaldi’s permanent

exhibition and therefore discourse. I think reconciliation can only be initiated when

conflicting elements are brought together. In spite of my idea, it must be said that

pinochetistas and former members of the military are sticking to their pact of silence232.

Therefore I must conclude that partly because of the circumstances, reconciliation is not yet

present in current discourse Villa Grimaldi’s discourse.

Part of the discourse can be explained by the visitors of Villa Grimaldi. The focus on

testimonies, memory questions and human rights issues, can be accounted for when looking

at the numerous amounts of interested scholars and professors that visit the park. Alongside

these scholars, former detainees and their family members visit Villa Grimaldi to honour,

232 Barahona de Brito, Alexandra, Carmen Gonzáles-Enriquez en Paloma, Aguilar eds – The Politics of

Memory. Transitional Justice in Democratizing Societies – Oxford University Press – Oxford – 2001 – p.

150

79

remember and mourn the activities that took place at Cuartel Terranova. The political and

social situation influences the discourse in another way. Pinochet associates often refuse to

talk about the past. The truth commissions and the government on the other hand, hope to

move on and look towards the future, but at the same time they hope to unite and reconcile

Chilean people and honour the victims of the Pinochet dictatorship. Lastly international

human rights organisation influence Villa Grimaldi through showing them the battle they

fight to bring perpetrators to justice.

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3. MUSEO DE LA MEMORIA Y LOS DERECHOS HUMANOS

3.1 HOW IT ALL BEGAN…

Yo quiero agradecer profundamente la presencia de todos

ustedes. Agradezco la compañía de los ex Presidentes,

Presidentes de todos los chilenos, porque con ello podemos

dar testimonio de que ésta es claramente la representación

de Chile. Un Chile que ama la libertad, que ama la verdad,

que ama la justicia, pero un Chile, por sobre todas las cosas,

que cree en la dignidad de la gente, de su gente.

- Michelle Bachelet 233-

The Pinochet era left deep marks in Chilean society. Various governmental efforts tried to

ease the pain. Truth commissions were originated, official apologies made and honorary

ceremonies held, but neither was conceived as satisfactory since a large part of society wanted

or hoped for justice234. The Rettig report, the final document of the first truth commission,

together with the recommendations of President Lagos, let President Michelle Bachelet,

herself detainee during the dictatorship, to announce the creation of a memorial museum on

the May 21, 2007235.

In December 2009 de construction of the new museum at the district Yungay, an area known

for its creativity, theatres and museums, was finished236. Earlier that year the archive and

collection ‘Casa de la Memoria’ was transferred to the new museum in an official ceremony.

On January 11, 2010 President Michelle Bachelet formally opened the museum.

233 Michelle Bachelet – Discurso de s.e. la Presidenta de la República, Michelle Bachelet, en

inauguración del Museo de la Memoria Y los Derechos Humanos – January 11, 2010 – p. 5 234 Stern – Reckoning with Pinochet – p.38 235 Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – Historia del Museo – in: http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/el-museo/sobre-el-museo/historia-del-museo/ - consulted on:

14.07.2012 236 Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – Arquitectura – in:

http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/el-museo/sobre-el-museo/definiciones-estrategicas/ - consulted on

14.07.2012

81

3.2 DISCOURSE AT MUSEO DE LA MEMORIA Y LOS DERECHOS

HUMANOS

3.2.1 INTRODUCTION

Analysing Villa Grimaldi proved that remembering a traumatic past is complex. By studying

another museum that tries to remember the same past I hope to lay bare some parts of the

inter-subjective framework that makes every memory different but at the same time similar.

Therefore I chose not only the most recently established museum to contrast the construction

of the very first one, but I also chose to change the angle of incidence. Villa Grimaldi is

organized by former victims and independent researchers, while Museo de la Memoria is a

governmental institution, portraying what I believe to be the governmental discourse. I will

apply the same investigatory tactics I used in the analysis of Villa Grimaldi, to examine

Museo de la Memoria. In my final conclusion, I will compare the discourses of both museums

in the way they remember and use the past.

3.2.2 ANALYSIS OF THE MUSEUM AND ITS SETTINGS

The newly constructed Museo de la Memoria is located in the cultural and touristic centre of

Santiago. According to Moser and discourse analysis theory this can result in two possible

narratives. On the one hand, a general narrative allows foreign tourists to follow the story, on

the other a specific discourse differentiates itself from other museums when competition is

relatively high237. I presume Museo de la Memoria maintains a rather general discourse. This

can be explained partly by the governmental influence, partly by the promotional actions that

encourage people to visit the museum and partly by the size of the museum. No museum

dealing with the memory question of Pinochet’s dictatorship comes even close to the

magnitude of Museo de la Memoria, which helps effuse authority. Up to 52877 visitors were

237 Moser – The devil is in the detail - p. 24

Aronsson & Elgenius – Making national museums in Europe, a comparative– p. 8

82

registered in the first half of 2011238. The only element working against the appeal of Museo

de la Memoria is the absence of sense of place239.

Entering the domain of Museo de la Memoria, the calmness and space contrast the busyness

of the Santiago streets although the noises of traffic can still be heard. The sand like colour of

the stones enhances the relaxed vibe. The colour and the modern design of the museum

building draw the attention, as well as the water that seems to carry a glass elevator with a

stone wall. The strict linear pattern is broken by this glass construction, meaning that this

element is processed by the brain to be a significant detail240. The visual perception theory of

Bloomer combined with elements of the Gestalt theory can account for the attraction of the

glass box. I believe this glass box is a symbolic representation of what the architects believe

memory is. According to the designers memory can show, evolve, float and appear241. That is

exactly what I see in the representation of the glass construction. It appears in the water, it can

evolve in an elevator or art piece, it gives the illusion of floatation on the water and the box

can appear and disappear depending on the attention one gives to it. The stone wall indicates

that memory is always present, although it is not always noticeable. Therefore, I believe the

construction is a symbolic representation of memory.

Another understanding of memory as stated by the architects, is that memory is a view on the

future with knowledge of the past242. This interpretation of memory is implemented in the

design by calling the museum construction ‘The Ark’. The name references the parable of

Noah, who left the past literally behind and sailed toward a better future. Again the floating

aspect of memory emerges. At the same the unifying recommendation of the Rettig Truth

238 Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – Informe de Resultados. Enero-junio 2011 – p.5 239 Sense of place refers to the connection of the locations history to its current function. Since the

museum is newly constructed, there is no connection between the location and the dictatorship. 240 Lester – Visual communication– p. 54 241 Mario Figueroo, Lucas Fehr, Carlos Dias – Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – in:

Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – Arquitectura – p.2 column 1 242 Ibid. p.1-2 column 2-1

83

Commission is fulfilled, given that religion is a common element in Chilean society,

according to Loveman and Lira243.

The Plaza de la Memoria, the large outside space of the museum, was deliberately created to

organise cultural events244. One of the walls of the domain contains the Universal Declaration

of Human Rights, another contains an art piece of Alfredo Jaar while an additional wall

displays an art piece by Jorge Tacla in memory of the musician Víctor Jara, a casualty of the

Pinochet dictatorship245. One could say that the Plaza symbolises the present, the past and the

future. Likewise, one could say that the Plaza symbolises that memory and remembrance

form the foundation and the means to accomplish the implementation and compliance of

human rights.

The inside space of the museum contains five different levels, creating an enormous display

area246. Falk and Dierking however, believe space is not only about size. Space enables visitors

to navigate through all the exhibition areas without the help of a guide247. In addition, spaces

change throughout the exhibition creating novelty and attraction. The large spaces of Museo

de la Memoria are alternated with smaller dark rooms or spaces with the form of a corridor. A

glass protrusion on the fourth floor attracts the attention because of its form and candle like

243 Chilean Nation Commission on Truth and Reconciliation – Report of the Chilean National

Commission on Truth and Reconciliation – University of Notre Dame Press – Indiana – Vol. I/II – 1993

– p. 1057

Loveman, Lira. - Truth, Justice, Reconciliation, and Impunity as Historical Themes – p.46-47 244 Memoria y los Derechos Humanos - Arquitectura – in: http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/el-

museo/sobre-el-museo/definiciones-estrategicas/ - consulted on 14.07.2012 245 Víctor Jara, a Chilean musician, theatre director, poet and political activist as member of the

Communist Party was tortured and later killed during the Pinochet dictatorship. Jara turned out to be a

martyr because his song themes of justice, peace and love stood in sharp contrast with the violence,

hate and human rights abuses which he had to endure at the end of his life. Ten years after the murder

of Víctor Jara, his wife wrote a book containing memoires of their life together.

Joan Jara - Victor Jara, an unfinished song – Bloomsbury – London – 1983 246 The Museo de la Memoria only makes a distinction between three levels. The ground floor and the

basement also contain exhibition elements. As a result I consider them to be exhibition areas.

Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – La memoria, Derechos humanos - Brochure 247 John H. Falk, Lynn D. Dierking – Learning from Museums. Visitor Experiences and the Making of

Meaning – AltaMira Press – Walnut Creek – 2000 – p. 123

84

light elements248. The area is created away from the museum route, and forms a seemingly

retreat where people can quietly think about the contrasting wall which contains images of

victims of the Pinochet era. In addition, the area references the national tradition of holding a

wake for the death.

The primary areas of each floor are left relatively open and contain general elements of the

permanent exhibition. When moving to the left side, a tunnel shaped area displays the history

of the dictatorship chronologically. Following this path, the concealed exhibition areas at the

centre of the floor alternate with each other and supplement the general history, as proposed

in the leftist exhibition space, with testimonies in spoken, written or material form. This

pattern is repeated from the third to the fifth floor. However, part of the central areas of the

two top floors is replaced by a gap so visitors can look down at the central space of the third

floor.

This composition of the permanent exhibition is somewhat confusing when looking at the

perception of time. The linear time perspective can be detected in the chronologic and linear

shape of the exhibition areas. However, combining all the exhibition areas of the different

floors, a spiral shape or more cyclic time perception can be detected. According to the

architects, a memory museum has a non-linear time perspective, which reinforces the cyclic

perception 249 . In spite of this idea, the design sends out mixed signals about the time

perspective.

The thoughtful use of colour and light helps create atmosphere and direction in the

exhibition. Even though dark areas usually do not attract people, the different shades of black

form an ideal background to highlight important elements through the use of vibrant

colours, such as red and white or variations of light. For example, at the beginning of the

248 The candle shaped lights refer to actual candles often found nearby coffins or graves (Appendix 2;é

p. 148). In this context, candles are a symbol of hope for the afterlife. It also refers to Christ, who is the

means of redemption. The candles are a reference to the religious culture, a common element in

Chilean society.

Ann Lovelace, Joy White – Beliefs, Values and Traditions. 2th edition – Heinemann Educational

Publishers – Oxford – 2002 – p.85 249 Mario Figueroo, Lucas Fehr, Carlos Dias – Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – in:

Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – Arquitectura – p.1 column 2

85

exhibition a rusting cross stands in a dark corner. At the bottom of the display, a single lamp

illuminates the cross, adding a sense of wonderment250. The combination of the rust and the

fact that very old objects can be damaged by incorrect en strong light, can account for the

sense of wonderment251. Behind the cross, a red wall illuminated with a single spot, also

attracts the attention and highlights the text written on the wall. The sense of wonderment

returns at the displays exhibiting personal belongings of victims and old torture devises.

Because of the nature of the issues displayed in these exhibition areas, in combination with

the fact that dark colours make objects feel heavier, the darkness forces a form of respect for

the victims and repulsion of the occurred atrocities252. The succession of such highlighted

areas helps the visitor find his way through the museum253.

The colours of the primary exhibition areas, portraying the history of the dictatorship in a

linear way, are mainly dominated by light grey-bluish colours. The coolness of these colours

makes the objects look spread out and the colours are also known for adding a more relaxed

feel to the exhibition254. The warm and therefore contrasting colour red is used again to

highlight different elements of the exhibition.

The illumination of the primary exhibition areas consists of a mixture between natural and

artificial light. The design of the museum takes into account the fact that light can have a

damaging effect on certain objects255. Therefore the museum is able to control the influence

of natural light. Seeing that the permanent exhibition contains a lot of newspaper articles and

letters, natural light or strong artificial light could destroy these artefacts256. The natural light

is partially mitigated and the exhibition is designed with the aim of preventing that light falls

directly on the documents. Even the dimmed artificial light is adjusted in order to prevent

direct descent of light on the documents.

250 Moser – The devil is in the detail – p. 26 251 Cuttle – Light for art’s sake – p. 7 252 Falk, Dierking – Learning from Museums. – p. 125 253 Moser – The devil is in the detail - p. 26 254 Falk, Dierking – Learning from Museums. – p. 125 255 Mario Figueroo, Lucas Fehr, Carlos Dias – Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – in:

Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – Arquitectura – p.2 column 2 256 Vincent Daniels – Paper – in: Eric May, Mark Jones (eds.) – Conservation Science. Heritage Materials

– The Royal Society of Chemistry – Cambridge – 2006 – p.48

86

The frequent use of glass, concrete and metal gives an industrial and modern feel to the

museum. The modern feel contrasts the subjects and elements that are exhibited in Museo de

la Memoria. The steel and iron cabinets give a contemporary and young feel to the objects at

display257. If this is true, the contemporaneity of the museum indicates that the Pinochet era

is still important and present in Chilean society today. Nevertheless, I follow the idea of Moser

that the contemporary feel makes visitors believe that tradition is challenged258. I believe the

museum challenges the events that occurred during Pinochet’s dictatorship. Given the

creation of Plaza de Memoria and several architectural references to human rights, the

modernity of the building symbolises that Chilean society has moved on and does not use

these old and inhuman methods to resolve conflict. The contradiction enhances indirectly the

importance of human rights. Furthermore, the contrast between the past and the present

partly fits the idea of the government of closing the memory box in order to look towards the

future259.

3.2.3 DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF LANGUAGE

Critical discourse analysis is a socio-political interpretive reading of language in whatever

form it appears, according to Phillips260. Similar to my critical discourse analysis of Villa

Grimaldi, I will consider Phillips’ definition and make a distinction between different

manifestations of text. Website texts, publication texts and exhibition texts will therefore be

treated side by side.

A. INTRODUCTORY ANALYSIS

Historians read different texts in order to get to know the general history behind a specific

historical event. Therefore, it is possible to encounter interrelated literature. Reading through

the website of Museo de la Memoria I came across certain intertextualities. On the website as

well as in Museo de la Memoria’s brochures, references to the truth commissions frequently

appeared. In addition the brochures contain various quotations of elements from the

257 Moser – The devil is in the detail – p. 25-26 258 Moser – The devil is in the detail – p. 24 259 Stern – Reckoning with Pinochet– p.121, 326 260 Phillips - Critical Discourse Analysis - p. 44

87

commissions’ final reports. The occurrence of these references is however not surprising,

given that Museo de la Memoria was founded by Chilean government who had earlier

instated both truth commissions261.

A similar observation can be made for the panels used in the museum’s exhibitions.

Nevertheless, the exhibition billboards repeatedly borrow elements from other texts. The

entrance hall houses a glass billboard with references to President Michelle Bachelet

inauguration speech. The main area of the third floor cites the Convention on the Rights of

the Child and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Finally, the permanent exhibition

portrays many newspaper articles, governmental documents and books. Quotes from these

texts are used to emphasize or clarify certain sections or themes.

As a result three initial discourse communities can be presumed among the members Museo

de la Memoria. Next to a museum discourse, I expect a human rights discourse. The frequent

references to declarations on human rights, combined with the objectives and mission of the

museum, lead me to believe that the human rights discourse might even be the most

important one. Lastly, I suspect a memory discourse. Again, the objectives and mission of the

museum play an important role in this presumption. The wall of photographs and divers

displays of older or personal objects, support this notion.

Presumably elements of a reconciliation discourse can be found. In imitation of the truth

commissions, who recommend reconciliation, it seems only logical that a museum based on

261 Both truth commissions were instated by different president. The Comisión Nacional de Verdad y

Reconciliación or simply Rettig Commission was founded by President Patricio Aylwin in 1990. The

findings of the report were published in 1991. The Comisión sobre Prisión politica y Tortura or Valech

commission was only created in 2003 by President Ricardo Lagos. A report appeared in 2004, but the

activities of the commission were picked up in 2009. Nearly two years later the commission published

its final report. Museo de la Memoria was established by the President Michelle Bachelet who had

reopened the Valech Commission.

Stern – Reckoning with Pinochet – p.67,286

Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – Historia del Museo – in:

http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/el-museo/sobre-el-museo/historia-del-museo/ - consulted on:

14.07.2012

La Tercera - Mandatario recibió en La Moneda el segundo informe de la Comisión Valech – in:

http://www.latercera.com/noticia/politica/2011/08/674-387056-9-mandatario-recibio-en-la-moneda-el-

segundo-informe-de-la-comision-valech.shtml - consulted on 14.07.2012

88

these commissions, adopt parts of their narrative. Most likely, Museo de la Memoria’s

discourse will show elements in favour of democracy. Mutually, the truth commission,

Chilean government and Museo de la Memoria ascribe importance to democratic values. The

context of political transition from dictatorship to democracy explains the emphasis on these

democratic values.

This initial defining of discourse groups only shows of which speech communities Museo de

la Memoria might be part. Believing that a particular set of norms and terminologies is

shared by each member of these discourse communities, can help detect and explain

fragments of these different discourses in the narrative of Museo de la Memoria.

B. FRAMING

Framing of communication is determined by the genre characteristics of the displayed text, as

well as by the influence of these features on the discourse262. As noted earlier, the texts of

Museo de la Memoria can be divided into three groups, namely website texts, brochure texts

and exposition texts. On the website, images, informative texts, video’s and official documents

alternate. The main features of a website are thus accounted for. The brochures of Museo de

la Memoria demonstrate a good balance between graphics and texts. Furthermore all

important features are present.

The exhibition panels contain all defining elements, such as titles and structure. However, the

sequence of the various textual elements is not always easy to follow. For instance, the title of

the ‘El dolor de niños’ part of the exhibition is written at the right side of a four panel text

board, while people usually start reading left. The key elements of the ‘Fin al estado de

derecho’ and ‘Condena internacional’ are positioned at the opposite side of the supporting and

illustrative objects. There is no separation between the various graphic objects, leaving the

visitor alone in deciding when to return to the guideline of the general history. Other parts of

the exhibition portray the complete opposite. The texts follow one another in a logical

manner and the structure is supported by the use of colour and light. The exhibition parts

‘Represión y tortura’ as well as ‘Retorno a la esperanza’ are an example of this statement.

262 Paltridge – Discourse analysis – p.185

89

In the constitution act of Museo de la Memoria, many goals are defined263. On their website

and in brochures, Museo de la Memoria highlights only a few264. Memories of the Pinochet era

are gathered and exposed in order to commence ethical debate. In addition the importance of

human rights is stressed, especially the aspects of tolerance, respect and solidarity. This

emphasis is necessary, because these values form the foundation of the democratic system

that is defended by the museum265.

It is not easy to determine which perspective influences Museo de la Memoria’s discourse.

Because various newspapers and books are used in the exposition, different visions of the

events are placed side by side. However, the frequent citations of testimonies of victims and

the references to casualties lead me to believe that Museo de la Memoria favours the victim’s

perspective. The museum emphasises child victims in its exhibition component ‘El dolor de

niños’ and in its brochures266. This technique of identification and emotional appeal is used to

underline the importance of tolerance, solidarity, respect and therefore human rights. The

emphasis on children can partly be explained by the fact that students from primary and

secondary schools visit the museum in order to learn about human rights. Taking into

consideration that human rights is an abstract idea, identification with child victims of their

own age should facilitate the understanding of the content and meaning of human rights267.

When establishing the Museo de la Memoria, the government stated that items and

information on the Pinochet dictatorship had to be collected along with the idea that the truth

263 Eduardo Diez Morello – Acta. Fundación museo de la memoria y los derechos humanos. Acta y

estatutos. 7 enero 2010 264 Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – Definiciones Estratégicas – in:

http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/el-museo/sobre-el-museo/definiciones-estrategicas-2/ - consulted on

14.07.2012 265 Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – Definiciones Estratégicas – in:

http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/el-museo/sobre-el-museo/definiciones-estrategicas-2/ - consulted on

14.07.2012 266 Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – La memoria, Derechos humanos – Brochure

Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – Museum of Memory and Human Rights – English

Brochure 267 Ochsner - Understanding the Holocaust through the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum - p. 242

90

commissions were the museum’s point of reference268. Since testimonies given at the truth

commissions are only released after fifty years, Museo de le Memoria is, just like other

museums, depending on the willingness of victims and offenders to provide testimony269.

Pinochetistas and former members of the armed forces are often unwilling to share their

story270. Many keep the pact of silence intact, causing an imbalance between victim and

perpetrator testimonies.

The nature of the museum’s visitors can also partly account for the emphasis on the victim’s

perspective in the exhibition. Researchers and scholars are mainly interested in testimonies

and experiences of former detainees and victims. Since Museo de la Memoria is the only

public museum completely dependent of the government and it is also the only museum who

inherited the ‘Casa de la Memoria’ collection, surviving victims and relatives of victims visit

the museum to reminisce and mourn victims271. The emphasis on memory and testimonies

can thus be explained.

The website contains no emphasis on the victim’s perspective. In a neutral manner, the

various tasks of the museum and the contents of collections are explained as well as various

initiatives in educational and cultural events organised by the museum. Contrary to the

website of Villa Grimaldi, Museo de la Memoria does not explain elements of the permanent

exhibition. Therefore I can say that the website has got purely informational goals.

The exhibition panels and folders highlight different words and themes through the use of

colour, light, size and thickness. The title of the folder ‘Museum of Memory and Human

268 Eduardo Diez Morello – Acta. Fundación museo de la memoria y los derechos humanos. Acta y

estatutos. 7 enero 2010 – p.3-4 269 Collins – Post-transitional Justice – p.90-91 270 Barahona de Brito, Alexandra, Carmen Gonzáles-Enriquez en Paloma, Aguilar eds – The Politics of

Memory. Transitional Justice in Democratizing Societies – Oxford University Press – Oxford – 2001 – p.

150 271 The ‘Casa de la Memoria’ collection consists of the combination of 4 archives of different actors

active during the Pinochet dictatorship. Fundación de Ayuda Social de las Iglesias Cristianas (FASIC),

Corporación de Promoción y Defensa de los Derechos del Pueblo (CODEPU), Fundación de Protección

a la Infancia Dañada por los Estados de

Emergencia (PIDEE) and Teleanálisis are part of this corporation and collection.

María Luisa Ortiz Rojas, Soledad Díaz de los Reyes - Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos:

Los desafíos del registro y acceso público de sus colecciones – p.2

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Rights’ stresses the importance of memory and human rights by printing these words in bold

italics 272 . The subheadings and key concepts of the brochure ‘La memoria, Derechos

humanos’ and the permanent exhibition panels draw the attention because of their bold italics

combined with the fact that they are written in a vibrant colour273. Concepts such as memory,

human rights, torture, truth and justice are emphasised in this way. The underlined terms can

always be linked to the goals of remembrance and the defence of human rights.

In addition, visitors also have an influence on the information portrayed in the museum.

Because of the amount of articles and documents, visitors decide for themselves what

documents they choose to read. Interactive display areas also allow visitors to decide which

clips they want to see or on what subject they like to get more information.

C. STUDYING SENTENCES

The recent historical and political turnarounds of Chile are used to raise the debate on human

rights issues, education about these issues and the importance of human rights values for

democracy. The main goals, as expressed on Museo de la Memoria’s website, prominently

appear as subjects of the sentences. The historical and remembrance aspects of the goals

prepared by the government form the foundation on which these themes are cultivated. In a

direct, formal and active way, information on different dictatorial events and different issues

surrounding the importance of human rights, is communicated to the visitor. This formality

and technicality conveys with the presupposed discourse of museums.

Similar to Villa Grimaldi, only the official and initiating documents of Museo de la Memoria

contain action. When for example, the inauguration documents were written, the inscribed

words essentially contained the action of officially instating Museo de la Memoria. The

absence of clearly visible achieving terminologies enhances the previously mentioned direct

speech act. Comparable to Villa Grimaldi, the action contained in the word memory is less

272 Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – Museum of Memory and Human Rights – English

Brochure – p.1 273 Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – La memoria, Derechos humanos – Brochure – p.6,

14, 18, 24, 28-29

Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – Permanent exhibition: billboards – for example:

Prohíbanse los partidos, los organismos de represión...

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noticeable. I argued before that memory is always combined with an action capturing verb274.

Museo de la Memoria thus stimulates its visitors to keep alive, learn and do something with

the information gathered while visiting the museum. Two billboards in the entrance hall of

Museo de la Memoria, demonstrate the plea to remember. The first billboard contains three

sentences of the inauguration speech of President Michelle Bachelet: “No podemos cambiar

nuestro pasado; sólo nos queda aprender de lo vivido. Esta es nuestra responsabilidad y

nuestro desafío” (We cannot change our past, we can only learn from the experience. This is

our responsibility and our challenge) 275 . Remembrance of the past therefore forms the

foundation for the present and the future. This statement of President Bachelet confirms the

statement of the architects that memory is a view on the future with knowledge of the past276.

The second billboard references memorials: “A lo largo de nuestro territorio se alzan sitios de

memoria, fruto del empeño colectivo por dar visibilidad a lo que permanece oculto.”

(Throughout our country remain memory sites, the result of collective efforts to make visible

what is hidden). Indirectly this speaks of the victory of memory on oblivion and silence. One

of the brochures of Museo de la Memoria contains a quote of Gabriel García Márquez that

summarises appropriately the intentions of the museum regarding memory277. “Life isn’t

what one has lived, but rather what one remembers and how one remembers it to tell it.”

The use of the action indicating expression ‘Nunca más’ or never again, shows again

similarities between the discourse of Museo de la Memoria and Villa Grimaldi278. The term

274 This argument can be found in section 2.2.3, c. Studying sentences. 275 Michelle Bachelet – Discurso de s.e. la Presidenta de la República, Michelle Bachelet, en

inauguración del Museo de la Memoria Y los Derechos Humanos – January 11, 2010 – p. 1,4 276 Mario Figueroo, Lucas Fehr, Carlos Dias – Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – in:

Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – Arquitectura – p.1-2 column 2-1 277 Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – Museum of Memory and Human Rights – English

Brochure – p.2, 4, 6, 7 278 Examples of the use of ‘Nunca más’ can be found in the name of a part of the exhibition ‘Zona del

Nunca más’ in which several panels logically refer to the expression. The brochure ‘La memoria,

Derechos humanos’ consumes and emphasises the therm on page 44 and 45. Lastly the expression is

also used in speeches and documents of museum employees, which can be consulted on Museo de la

Memoria’s website.

Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – La memoria, Derechos humanos – Brochure – p.44-45

Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos - Historia del Museo – in:

http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/el-museo/sobre-el-museo/historia-del-museo/ - consulted on:

14.07.2012

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not only references Patricio Aylwin’s policy of acknowledging the truth, strive for prevention

and establishing a respectful way of living together but it also references the protest of

Chilean civilians against the disappearances and human rights violations that took place

during Pinochet’s dictatorship 279 . The promise, complaint and demand aspects of the

expression are therefore also present in Museo de la Memoria’s discourse.

The repeated use of the concept of solidarity contains another encouragement to actively

participate during the museum visit as well as in everyday life. Intrinsically, solidarity means

that a relationship is forged between at least two parties. Being one of the main goals of

Museo de la Memoria, the term often appears on the website. In 2011 an exposition with the

title ‘Cronologías: Solidaridad con Chile de los Países Nórdicos’ was held, in order to enhance

the solidarity that was given to the Chilean people in the battle against Pinochet’s

dictatorship280. Correspondingly, the term is recurrently used in the permanent exhibition.

The billboard ‘Ayuda a las víctimas, la solidaridad se moviliza’ or ‘victim support, solidarity is

mobilized’ highlights the word solidarity by printing it in bold italics. Solidarity is also

promoted in more indirect way. Another exhibition of 2011, honours the women that spoke up

and told the world about the events in Chile, showing the solidarity of these women with the

victims.281

In imitation of the frequent use and significance of the word solidarity, Museo de la Memoria

practices what they preach. The museum not only shows solidarity with the victims of the

Pinochet era, but they also show solidarity with victims in other countries. The world map

made from photographs of citizens of various countries together with references to all truth

Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos - Muestra Permanente – in:

http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/expos/muestra-permanente/ - consulted on: 14.07.2012 279 Stern – Reckoning with Pinochet – p.31 280 Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos - Cronologías: Solidaridad con Chile de los Países

Nórdicos – in: http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/expos/cronologias-solidaridad-con-chile-de-los-paises-

nordicos/ - consulted on 15.07.2012 281 Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos - La Lucha de las Mujeres – in:

http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/expos/la-lucha-de-las-mujeres/ - consulted on 15.07.2012

94

commissions set up in the entrance hall of Museo de la Memoria, symbolises solidarity

towards all victims of violence, human rights violations and war282.

One can argue that Museo de la Memoria shows involvement towards victims. Indeed, various

elements in the permanent and temporary exhibitions discuss certain victim groups. I refer

again to the exhibition part solely dedicated to the pain of children. However, the educational

component of Museo de la Memoria’s task, might explain this emphasis283. It is true that

testimonies of victims are gathered and fragments of these testimonies are used in the

exhibition and brochures. Indeed, Museo de la Memoria explains different methods of torture

and displays the total amount of detention centres in Chile. Nevertheless, I must point to the

constitution act of Museo de la Memoria in which is stated that the museum has a

responsibility and task to collect testimonies, information and evidence in order to add them

to the archive and display Chile’s recent history284. A similar comment can be made with

respect to the personal objects of the victims. Museo de la Memoria also participates in

commemorations, for instance the ‘Día Internacional en Apoyo a las Víctimas de la Tortura’

or the International Day in Support of Victims of Torture285. These participations can be seen

as a form of involvement with victims, more specifically it is an expression of compassion and

respect.

I believe Museo de la Memoria uses an independence strategy, meaning that the museum

does not impose one opinion on the visitor. Because Museo de la Memoria uses articles form

different newspapers and authors, the horizon is broadened. One can still make a distinction

282 Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos - Comisiones de Verdad – in:

http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/el-museo/sobre-el-museo/comisiones-de-verdad/ - consulted on

15.07.2012 283 The fact that students from primary and secondary schools visit the museum in order to learn about

abstract term ‘human rights’ can be facilitated through the process of identification. Identifying with

child victims of their own age brings torture and disappearance closer to their personal environment.

Children do not use the abstract concepts that grownups use when explain human rights. Using the

language of children and elements of their everyday life makes them relate with victims.

Ochsner - Understanding the Holocaust through the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum - p. 242 284 Eduardo Diez Morello – Acta. Fundación museo de la memoria y los derechos humanos. Acta y

estatutos. 7 enero 2010 – p.4 285 Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos - Museo de la Memoria conmemora el Día

Internacional en Apoyo a las Víctimas de la Tortura – in:

http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/expos/caballito-de-mar/ - consulted on 15.07.2012

95

between newspapers loyal to the dictatorship of Pinochet, such as ‘El Mercurio’ and ‘La

Tercera’, and alternative newspapers. Both types of newspapers are represented in Museo de la

Memoria’s exhibition. For that reason I believe museum visitors are able to form their own

opinion.

D. STUDYING WORDS

Lexical cohesion is to a certain extent, created through the repetition of words 286 . The

recurrence of words points therefore often to the most important and emphasised ideas of a

text. In my examination of the texts of Museo de la Memoria, I used the ‘Wordle’ program to

detect which words were used most often. However, the exhibition texts were counted

manually.

The frequent appearances of the terms human rights and memory can be accounted for by

the fact that they are a part of the museum’s name. Then again, I believe their recurrence is

more than mere coincidence. Both terms are part of the goals rendered in the constitution act

of Museo de la Memoria. It is therefore not surprising that the names of some exhibition areas

contain references to memory. The outside space carries the name ‘Plaza de la Memoria’ and

one of the inside spaces is named ‘Galería de la Memoria’287. Alongside memory, the synonym

‘conmemoran’ (commemorate, remember) often emerges on the website. Although the use of

memory recurs often on the webpage, there is little notice of the term in the language of the

exhibits and the corresponding brochures. Nonetheless, Museo de la Memoria published

‘Videos Memoria’ in 2010, which contains personal opinions of prominent as well as regular

people, about the value and use of memory in Chile288. Even though all witnesses are not

aligned with regard to the interpretation of the concept memory, three characteristics can be

detected, namely commemorate victims, use the memory of the past to create a better future

and emphasize important values that part of Chileans did not remember during the

286 Paltridge – Discourse analysis – p.166 287 Museo de la Memoria – Espacios – in: http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/exposiciones/espacios/ -

consulted on 15.07.2012 288 Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – Videos Memoria. Video memoria/ video

construcción/ video muestra museográfica/ video inaguración CEDOC - 2010

96

dictatorship. Not coincidentally, these interpretations of memory are also reflected in the

written and architectural discourse of Museo de la Memoria. The frequent use of the terms

‘conocimiento’ (knowledge), ‘experiencia’ (experience), ‘reflexión’ (reflexion) and ‘valores’

(values) can thus be explained in this context. The knowledge and experiences of the past are

the basis of reflection for Chilean society today to determine which values are important.

Members of Museo de la Memoria participate in and organise seminars focused on memory

questions and debate. Examples are ‘Seminario Internacional. Memorias en construcción.’

(International Seminar. Memories under construction) and ‘Cátedra de la Memoria y los

Derechos Humanos-Seminario Internacional. “Los usos de la memoria”’ (Chair of Memory

and Human Rights-International Seminar. "The Uses of Memory”)289. Unfortunately, Museo

de la Memoria does not publish records of these seminars, so I can draw no conclusions with

respect to the discourse in these seminars.

The emphasis on human rights, as with the word memory, is supported by the use of related

concepts. The exhibition, as well as brochures and speeches of members of Museo de la

Memoria contain the expression ‘Nunca más’. As noted before, the term embodies protest

against the human rights violations committed during the Pinochet dictatorship and promises

at the same time to prevent these infringements will never happen again290. Similarly, the

exhibition shows pamphlets, brooches and articles that enclose the phrase ‘No a la tortura’ (No

to torture), a clear objection against violations of human rights. Contrary to these complaints,

human rights are also approached in a positive way. Different values which are included in

human rights are also emphasised. Solidarity, respect and dignity are examples of such

values291. It is no coincidence that these values exhibit similarities with values of democracy,

289 Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – Memoria 2011 – p.6

Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos - Cátedra de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos –

Seminario Internacional “Los usos de la memoria” – in:

http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/actividad/catedra-de-la-memoria-y-los-derechos-humanos-seminario-

internacional-los-usos-de-la-memoria%E2%80%9D/ - consulted on 15.07.2012 290 Stern – Reckoning with Pinochet – p.31 291 Examples of these values can be found in brochures and articles. ‘Corte Interamericana de DDHH

destaca labor desarrollada por el Museo de la Memoria’, ‘Segundo aniversario del Área de Educación en

el Museo de la Memoria’ and ‘La memoria, Derechos humanos’ are only a few examples of articles in

which all three values are mentioned regularly.

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since the education of the values of human rights and democracy are both stated in the

constitution act292.

Although some concepts are less present in a numerous way, their occurrence in the

exhibition is anything but inconspicuous. Through bold italics and variations in size the

following words are highlighted: ‘Junta’ (junta, dictatorship), ‘militar’ (military), ‘detenidos’

(detainees), ‘desaparicíon’ (disappearance), ‘asilo’ (asylum, shelter), ‘represión’ (repression),

‘plebiscito’ (plebiscite, referendum) and ‘expulsión’ (expulsion, exclusion). When combining

all emphasised words the recent history of Chile is summarised in a brief and simple manner.

During a military dictatorship, repression, expulsion and disappearances occurred. Therefore

people looked for shelter in other countries. Protests against these violations of human rights,

led to a referendum which resulted in a no against the junta government. As a result,

democracy was restored. By highlighting different words in the exhibition, Museo de la

Memoria seems to create a leitmotiv throughout the exhibition.

Although Museo de la Memoria’s constitution act does not mention the promotion of

reconciliation, it does state that the reports of the truth commissions are a point of reference

for the museum. Both reports recommend the promotion of reconciliation. For that reason I

suspected the regular appearance of the term. The contrary is however true, seeing that the

language discourse of Museo de la Memoria only mentions reconciliation a few times.

Using antonyms enhances the existing contrast between the opposing words. Part of their

meaning is passed on the discourse in which they are used. Museo de la Memoria uses only a

few antonyms, namely torture-respect, junta-democracy/constitutional state, expulsion-

asylum. In using these antonyms the museum tries to enlarge the differences between the

Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos - Segundo aniversario del Área de Educación en el

Museo de la Memoria – in: http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/blog/segundo-aniversario-del-area-de-

educacion-en-el-museo-de-la-memoria/ - consulted on 15.07.2012

Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos - Corte Interamericana de DDHH destaca labor

desarrollada por el Museo de la Memoria – in: http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/corte-interamericana-

de-ddhh-destaca-labor-desarrollada-por-el-museo-de-la-memoria/ - consulted on: 15.07.2012

Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – La memoria, Derechos humanos – Brochure 292 Eduardo Diez Morello – Acta. Fundación museo de la memoria y los derechos humanos. Acta y

estatutos. 7 enero 2010 – p.3

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values and customs of the dictatorship and the current democracy. Recommending and

praising democracy are part of the goals as written in Museo de la Memoria’s constitution act.

The front page of the English brochure of Museo de la Memoria is the only exception to use

of antonyms. The background of the front page is filled with antonyms, again to stress the

importance of human rights293.

Words are sometimes covered with emotional resonances. Those emotions actively contribute

to the experience of visitors, since they facilitate the process of identification294. Connecting

emotionally with a victim helps bringing the past experiences into the present life. Critical

discourse analysis tries to identify these emotionally loaded words to understand how the

discourse is influenced by them and how they can affect the perception and discourse of

visitors295. In Museo de la Memoria’s exhibition, the word ‘children’ caries emotion. In the

exhibition part ‘El dolor de niños’ the situation of divers child detainees is described. The

testimonies in the exhibition are not written in personal perspective, contrary to the testimony

in one of Museo de la Memoria’s brochures296. Nevertheless, visitors instantly connect with the

children’s stories. People generally believe that children are innocent. Hurting and violating

these children encounters with incredulousness.

The reference to the Chilean tradition ‘velatón’ or lighting of candles, is also connected to

emotion297. After the dictatorship, Chilean people would light candles and march to places

where torture had occurred. The lights symbolise all the fallen. Some areas of Chile repeat

these velatones every year. In 2011, students organised a ‘velatón por la democracia’ because

they believe the democracy as instated after the absolute rule of Pinochet, is outdated298. Chile

is different and therefore the democracy should be different, according to these students.

293 Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – Museum of Memory and Human Rights – English

Brochure – p.1 294 Ochsner - Understanding the Holocaust through the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum - p. 242 295 Wodak – Critical linguistics and critical discourse analysis – p. 206 296 Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – La memoria, Derechos humanos – Brochure – p.22 297 Jacqueline Adams – Surviving dictatorship: a work of visual sociology – Routledge – New York –

2012 – p.172, 187 298 Compañía Chilena de Comunicaciones S.A. - Velatón por la Democracia congregó a más de 400

personas frente a La Moneda – in: http://www.cooperativa.cl/velaton-por-la-democracia-congrego-a-mas-

de-400-personas-frente-a-la-moneda/prontus_nots/2011-08-11/232141.html - consulted on: 15.07.2012

99

Either way, ‘velatón’ still covers a lot of emotion which can be connected to the victims of the

dictatorship.

Lastly, the expressions ‘Nunca más’ and ‘¿Dónde están?’(Where are they?) carry a lot of

emotion. The expressions originated as captions under black-and-white photographs of

disappeared Chileans299. The expressions grew stronger and are still in use today. The phrases

highlight the battle against oblivion, silence and infractions of human rights. Even without

photographs, the words cannot be separated from emotion.

E. ANALYSING ANOTHER LANGUAGE

Contrary to Villa Grimaldi, no articles of books have been written analysing elements of the

discourse of Museo de la Memoria. Therefore I cannot compare my findings with those of

others.

F. COMBINING ALL ELEMENTS

In the beginning of this subsection I suspected three different types of discourse: a museum

discourse, a human rights discourse and a memory discourse. I also implied that elements of a

reconciliation discourse could be found. I have indeed found proof of the alleged museum

discourse. The use of direct and formal language, in combination with factual documented

captions belongs to the characteristics of a museum discourse. Lastly, various exhibitions

portray different elements or approaches of the large themes.

The presence of a human rights discourse can easily be defended. The frequent recurrence of

human rights combined with the frequent emerging of related values, such as respect and

dignity are not the only evidence for this statement. The constitution act of Museo de la

Memoria literally states that the importance of human rights should be displayed and that the

museum should take initiatives to educate people about these human rights. The connotation

and emotional connection to ‘nunca más’ and the testimonies of detained children, highlight

299 Nicolás Salazar-Sutil – Variations on a Fugative’s Song: The performance of Disappearance and

Forced Migration in Chile – in: Rocío G. Davis, Dorothea Fischer-Hornung, Johanna C. Kardux (eds.) –

Aestatic Practices and Politics in Media, Music and Art. Performing Migration – Routledge – New York

– 2011 – p.176

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the importance of human rights. The few antonyms Museo de la Memoria uses, underlines

the differences between a society with or without the application of human rights.

Furthermore, I found proof of elements of the remembrance or memory discourse. Similar to

the words human rights, the regular emergence memory and related terms can be seen as

evidence of a remembrance discourse. The video on the memory theme summarises the same

ideas the constitution act of Museo de la Memoria emphasised, namely the encouragement to

gather information in order to show next generations what happened as a form of prevention,

as well as commemorating the victims. The importance of memory can also be detected in

the giving of names to different locations.

Although I suspected to find elements of a reconciliation discourse, I could not find any

arguments to support this hypothesis. However, I did find elements in favour of a democracy

discourse. Given that Museo de la Memoria and the government believe the values of human

rights are not only similar to those of democracy, but also form the foundation of democratic

system, almost all arguments of human rights can be transferred to democracy.

The combination of the four detected discourses can be explained by the nature of the visitors.

Researchers and scholars are usually interested in the testimonies of former detainees

combined with the documents gathered in the archive of Museo de la Memoria. Former

detainees and family members of disappeared Chileans, visit the museum to commemorate

and honour the victims of the dictatorship. Lastly, schools en students visit the museum in

order to learn from Chileans recent history in order to understand the importance and utility

of human rights and democracy.

3.2.4 DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF IMAGES

The most basic method to communicate is through the use of images. The former Egyptians

wrote by drawing different images and caveman drew animals on the wall of their caves. The

communicative power of images should thus not be underestimated. In this analysis, I will

try to break through to the deeper and symbolic meaning of the images used by Museo de la

Memoria in order to detect the discourse of their images.

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A. PERSONAL PERSPECTIVE

In the first phase of analysing images given the theory of Lester, the researcher tries to detect

early elements of appeal and association through personal perception. Similar to Villa

Grimaldi, it would be relatively impossible to describe all perceptions of the individual

images. Therefore, I will limit my descriptions to the most essential and excessive ones.

Before entering Museo de la Memoria, I visited the art piece of Alfredo Jaar located on the

opposite end of the Plaza de Memoria and the museum300. The darkened underground space

shows a wall on which the illuminated contours of faces are visible. The wall reminds me of

the portrait photographs of victims of the dictatorship. Various images containing these

portraits can be found throughout the exhibition and brochures of Museo de la Memoria301.

All of them grabbed my attention. These portraits appeared frequently in Chilean and

Argentinian streets after the resolution of the dictatorship, when family members asked for

truth about their loved ones and justice for the people responsible. Salazar-Sutil believes that

the appearance of these pictures during the dictatorship was a counter-interrogation

manoeuvre which eventually led to the crumbling of international support for Pinochet302.

Felman on the other hand, believes these portraits haunt the post-dictatorial society, because

the expressionless disappeared people are unable to tell their story and are often deprived of

their human face303 . Especially this last part I connected with the work of Alfredo Jaar.

However, in the explanation of the artwork is said that the faces are recognizable through

specific characteristics304. The piece depicts both living and disappeared Chileans in order to

connect the importance of memory for the present. The timeless and enduring memory

300 Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos - La Geometría de la Conciencia, obra permamente

del Museo de la Memoria – in: http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/expos/la-geometria-de-la-conciencia/ -

consulted on: 16.07.2012 301 Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – La memoria, Derechos humanos – Brochure – p.5,

7, 28, 29 302 Salazar-Sutil – Variations on a Fugative’s Song – p.176 303 Felman – The Juridicial Unconscious – p. 13 304 Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos - La Geometría de la Conciencia, obra permamente

del Museo de la Memoria – in: http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/expos/la-geometria-de-la-conciencia/ -

consulted on: 16.07.2012

102

contained within this thought is indeed represented by these portraits, according to Nelson’s

theory305.

I spotted different images of a clenched fist throughout the exhibition. Some were put on pin

buttons, others were part of pamphlets. The clenched fist, combined with the colour red,

reminds me of symbols of communism306. The appearance of communist symbols can be

explained by the fact that Pinochet believed he saved Chile from the communist threat.

During his 17 year reign, he silenced every form of criticism and opposite opinions by making

people disappear and subjecting them to torture. By creating pamphlets and buttons with

these symbols, the people showed that communism could not be swept away easily. At the

same time, I believe these signs were a form of protest against the human rights violations.

After all, a clenched fist represents people-power, especially for those who are powerless in

certain situations307. The symbol of aggression also portrayed by the clenched fist enhances

the protest against the Pinochet regime308.

One picture at the beginning of the exhibition, grabbed my attention because of the subject.

Two kids stand in front of a large wall, measuring the size of bullet holes with their fingers

trying to recover the ammunition. The innocence of their game and their curiosity stands in

sharp contrast with the violence of the occurred events.

One drawing caught my eye because of the vibrant colour contrasted by black309. The drawing

portrays people throwing rocks at armed forces. The picture reminds me of photographs of

protest where the unequal struggle between the stones armed mob with and strong-armed

305 Alice A. Nelson – Conclusion: Marketing Discontent. The Political Economy of Memory in Latin

America – in: Ksenija Bilbija, Leigh A. Payne (eds.) – Accounting for Violence. Marketing memory in

Latin America – Duke University Press – Durham – 2011 – p.359 306 Lee Richards – The Black Art. British clandestine psychological warfare against the third reich –

Psywar – East Sussex – 2010 – p.248 307 John F. O’Grady – The present state of Christology – in: Michael A. Hays, Liam Gearon (eds.)

Contemporary Catholic Theology: a reader – The Continuum Publishing Company – New York – 2000

– p.196 308 Sunil Kumar Sarker – A Companion to E. M. Forster. Volume 3 – Atlantic Publishers & Distributars

(p) Ltd. –New Delhi – 2007 – p.927 309 Bright colours easily attract the visitors’ attention, especially when presented on a dark background.

Edson, Dean – The handbook for museums – p. 56

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government becomes clear. Throwing stones at armed forces and police officers is a sign of

protest which is known and applied worldwide 310 . Drawing this image on a pamphlet

combined with the word resistance, can therefore be interpreted that the creators of this

pamphlet knew the battle would be unequal, but that it was worth fighting anyway, so Chilean

would no longer have to live a fear. I believe the pamphlet was created to mobilise

international sympathizers. The text on the pamphlet is written in English. One of the

surrounding pictures contains a contradictory message. A dove is apparently cherished by a

hand. I believe this image presents the demand for peace311. I believe the content of both

messages is intrinsically equal, namely ending the dictatorship and human rights violations,

but their ways of getting there are contrasting. Oddly enough, the dove symbolised innocence

in ancient Egypt and is currently used as the Chinese emblem of long life312. Adding these

connotations to the image, one could say that this picture is a demand for respect for human

life as well as charm commented on all detainees.

B. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

The historical perspective of images helps providing a tradition through which the technical

aspects of images can be explained more easily. Museo de la Memoria uses different types of

images, namely photographs, drawings, pamphlets, stamps and logos of official documents

and video fragments. Drawings have the oldest history. Techniques and drawing materials

have changed over time, but an explanation of this evolution is not relevant, given that most

sketches are made by children younger than twelve. These children in development do not

310 Examples of these stone throwing protest can for instance be found in Tibet, Egypt and South-Africa.

Gail M. Gerhart, Clive L. Glaser – From protest to Challenge. A documentary history of African politics

in South Africa, 1982-1990. Vol. 6: Challenge and victory, 1980-1990 – Indiana University Press –

Bloomington – 2010 – p.32

Anne-Marie Blondeau, Katia Buffetrille – Authenticating Tibet: Answers to China’s 100 questions –

University of California Press – Berkley – 2008 – p.315

Human Rights Watch – Reading between the “Red lines”. The Repression of Academic freedom in

Egyptian Universities – vol. 17 – nr.6 – Human Rights Watch – New York – 2005 – p.63 311 George Ferguson – Signs & symbols in Christian art – Oxford University Press – Oxford – 1954 – p.15 312 Charles Alfred Speed Williams – Chinese symbolism and art motives. A comprehension handbook

on symbolism in Chinese art through the ages. Fourth revised edition – Tuttle Publishing – Vermont -

1974 – p.144

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have sufficient skills to use complicated drawing techniques313. I must emphasise that what

children draw is more important than how they draw it, according to psychologists314.

The one sketch that is made by the museum is relatively modest315. A blindfolded person is

drawn in orange, hanging the wrong way up on a stick holding themselves up by squeezing

the stick between the knees and knotted hands. Seeing that no photographs were taken of

torture in order of keeping it hidden, the only possible way of visualising and reconstruction

torture techniques is by drawing. No artistic goals were pursued.

Although pamphlets and official documents have got considerable history behind them since

their inception, their technical developments are of little importance. Similar to the drawings

of the pictures, I believe it is more important to look at what is portrayed and by whom, than

knowing the technical developments of printing presses and stamps. The difference between

the pamphlet ‘El General NO tiene quién la Escriba’ by the movimiento juvenil por el no and

the pamphlet ‘Todo Chile dice Si’ is emphasised by the discourse, not the printing method.

The basic idea for photography was expressed in the 16th century316. However, it was only in

1826 the first photograph, worthy of the name, was taken by Nicéphore Niépce 317 .

Photography has thus, a fairly recent tradition. Photographs come in different sizes, shapes

and colours all of which combine in different styles. More importantly, one can also divided

photographs in different groups depending on what subjects they portray. This dissection is

the most useful when looking at the photographs used by Museo de la Memoria. I can detect

portraits, war photographs, every day photographs and what I label press photography.

313 Jan Heuninckx distinguishes 4 evolution periods, namely the scribble period (4 years) the

ideographic period (up to 8 years), the transition to physiography period (up to 11 years) and the image

of the observation period (12 years).

Jan Heuninckx – Gradueel tekenen en schilderen vanaf de basisschool – Plantyn – Mechelen – 1986 –

p.36 314 Kenneth W. Merrell – Behavioral, Social, and Emotional Assessment of Children and Adolescents.

Second edition – Lawrence Erlbaum Associations Inc. – New Jersey – 2003 – p.191 315 The sketch can be found in Appendix 2 – 2.2 – p. 149 316 Helmut Gernsheim – A concise history of photography. 3th revised edition – General Publishing

Company, Ltd. – Ontario – 1986 – p.4 317 Ibid. – p.9

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Some say the basic idea for making films was expressed by the ancient Greeks 318 .

Nevertheless, only in 1878 the first movie was made by Muybridge 319 . Similarly to

photography, films come in different shapes, colours and sounds. Films can also be divided in

different groups depending on the subject they portray. In my own inquiry I will use a similar

division as the one Robert Rosenston made on films portraying history 320 . The division

consists of newsflashes, documentaries, telling lives, movies made by filmmakers or historians

and entertainment films. Most of the films used by Museo de la Memoria are self-made

compilations of different types of these films. The video fragment ‘Video muestra

museográfica’ contains reactions of visitors on the importance of the existence of the

museum, black-and-white fragments of the news and recovered film fragments of Isla

Dawson321. By making their own compilations, Museo de la Memoria is able to choose which

elements fit within the exhibitions.

C. TECHNICAL PERSPECTIVE

The technical skills needed to create the sketch of Museo de la Memoria are relatively limited.

The colour pallet consists of a black background and a bright orange drawing. The black does

not overpower the drawing since the brightness of the orange attracts the attention, as stated

by colour theory322. The white and orange text on the page nuances the darkness of the black

background as well. Because of the presence of text, the drawing is not positioned in the

centre. In spite of this positioning, the eye is still attracted first by the drawing. Because of the

symmetrical grouping of the elements of the page, the part with the most refined and

sophisticated shape strikes the attention more easily323. Because of the details of hair and

blindfold, as well as the paints and the lines creating shadow, the person hanging upside

down, attracts the attention. The diagonal line is usually the first element people see when

318 Wheeler Winston Dixon, Gwendolyn Audrey Foster – A short history of film – Rutgers University

Press – New Jersey – 2008 – p.1 319 Ibid. – p.4 320 Robert A. Rosenstone – History on Film/Film on History. History: concepts, theories and practice –

Pearson Education Limited – Harlow - 2006 321 Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos – Videos Memoria. Video memoria/ video

construcción/ video muestra museográfica/ video inaguración CEDOC - 2010 322 Gary Edson , David Dean – The handbook for museums – p. 56 323 Brysbaert – Psychologie - p.146

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looking at the sketch, given that the brain processes familiar forms more easily. According to

Lester, pictures that contain forms are more memorable, because the brain processes them

more meticulously. Depth is created through the use of a multiview perspective and shadow.

Drawing the person at an angle shows different sides of the body, creating an illusion of

depth324. As mentioned in the theoretical part of this research, it is not always clear which

emotional values and meanings colours emit. Presumably, orange is known for its association

with balance and emotional healing325. In an indirect way, the colour of the brochure could

highlight the healing process of Chilean people.

In the exhibition area ‘Retorno a la esperanza’ the colours red, white and blue often appear,

not coincidentally, the colours of the national flag. Sometimes parts of the flag are

reproduced in a clenched fist. I believe the flag not only refers to the battle fought to gain

independence, but that the combination of the fist and the flag symbolises the battle Chileans

had to fight to gain Chile back after the dictatorship326.

Although there is a lot of colour in the exhibition, the majority of the photographs are in

black and white. Part of the dominance of black and white photographs can be explained by

the large presence of newspapers. Most family pictures use the same colour pattern as the

newspapers because colour cameras were not as widespread as today. I do believe Bucher has

a point when stating that black and white colours add elements of nostalgia to portraits and

family photographs327. The thought of the togetherness of family stands in sharp contrast with

the brutal manner in which some family members were killed during the dictatorship. The

feeling of nostalgia is less apparent for the pictures from newspapers. Considering that

newspaper articles often interspersed with colourful elements in the exhibition, the feeling of

324 Corporación Villa Grimaldi Parque por la Paz – Exposición Villa Grimaldi Presente, pasado y futuro.

– Billboard 13

Lester – Visual communication – p. 49 325 Lynne Lauren – Simply Meditation – Sterling Publishing Co. Inc. – New York – 2010 – p.75-76 326 Central Intelligence Agency – South America: Chile. Flag description – in:

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/flags/flagtemplate_ci.html - consulted on

16.07.2012 327 Bucher – Black and White Digital Photography Photo – p.5

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nostalgia can only be applied to assemblage of black and white photos. There are thus

moments in Museo de la Memoria’s exhibition, which arouse a sense of nostalgia.

Depth is created through alterations in size, space, light or textural gradients in the

photographs exhibited by Museo de la Memoria. None add explicitly meaning to certain

photographs and their signification, contrary to the use of shapes and colour. One picture,

portrayed in the exhibition and in one of the brochures, shows a demonstration of people

holding bandanas with messages on them over their heads. The brain processes this

photograph particularly well because the presence of forms makes pictures more memorable,

according to Lester328. The bandanas form isosceles triangles, which adds dynamic to the

picture. Although the photograph gives a feel of action, the women are standing still. When

looking closely, one can see the square pattern of a fence. Resulting from the triangle shape,

the point of every triangle directs the eye to another one, all convey the same message: ‘por la

dignidad y la justicia’ (for dignity and justice). Therefore, the message in enhanced.

One of the exhibition photographs of Museo de la Memoria shows Chilean people requesting

asylum. In the picture, straight vertical lines are abundant. Vertical line stops the eye and

encourages the spectator to explore the space surrounding the mark. Evelyn Hatcher believes

that straight lines add stiffness to the image329. In a way she is right, given that the gate is

closed and the people behind it are trapped in Chile, at that time an unsafe country for

anyone with an opposing opinion. The low horizontal lines of the fence symbolise the horizon

with plenty of room to grow. When the gate opens, the new country is indeed a place to grow

for the people that are granted asylum. According to my opinion, this picture summarises the

emotions and feelings of many Chileans at the beginning of Pinochet’s reign, namely the

feeling of entrapment and the anxiety not to be themselves, because of the danger which

might linked to it. Entering a free country gives them more hope and more possibilities.

One of the pamphlets appeals to visitors because of its use of colour and familiar shapes. A

bright, blue colour highlights the words ‘Verdad y justicia’ (truth and justice) and a rose.

328 Lester – Visual communication – p. 42, 44 329 Evelyn Payne Hatcher - Visual metaphors: a methodological study in visual communication –

University of New Mexico Press – Albuquerque – 1981 – p.81

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Particularly those elements symbolise the claim for truth and justice for the disappeared and

murdered Chileans. The rose symbolises flowers on a grave in respect of the dead. The light

blue colour symbolises spirituality and heavenly330. Both implementations of blue fit well with

the symbolic meaning of the rose. It is only after these first impressions the pictures of

disappeared Chileans catch the eye. They are drawn in black and white, adding the feeling of

nostalgia to them331. Any way one looks at the pamphlet, respect is expressed for the victims

of the dictatorship.

D. ETHICAL PERSPECTIVE

The ethical questions surrounding the themes of Museo de la Memoria are twofold. Primarily,

one can ask the question what measures can or should be taken to defend a certain opinion.

Secondary, one can ask how a traumatic or violent past should be dealt with and how those

responsible should be held accountable. In the corresponding piece of the Villa Grimaldi

chapter, I noted that Brian Loveman and Elisabeth Lira discovered that Chileans have

developed a traditional way of dealing with a disturbing past in which the opposing groups

both believe they are the saviours of the homeland332. The ‘Vía Chilena de reconciliación

política’ consists of asking for reconciliation and resolution after a violent conflict. Instead of

dealing with the diversity of Chilean society, the government usually choses to focus on

unifying Chileans by emphasising similarities such as catholic values and culture. The

government often refers to the Spanish colonial traditions by granting amnesty, hand out

reparations and promote requests for reconciliation. Occasionally, initiatives are taken to

discover the truth of the events, but they are often limited in time in order to establish a

period of tranquillity. Social memories of the traumatic past are therefore often restructured

or supressed. These circumstances and traditions form the foundation for the ethical debate in

which Museo de la Memoria was established.

330 Galina V. Paramei – Russian ‘blues’: Controversies of basicness – in: Robert E. Maclaury, Galina V.

Paramei, Don Dedrick (eds.) – Antropology of color: Interdisciplinary Multilevel Modeling – John

Benjamins Publishing Company – Amsterdam – 2007 – p.100 331 Bucher – Black and White Digital Photography Photo Workshop – p.5 332 Loveman, Lira. - Truth, Justice, Reconciliation, and Impunity as Historical Themes: Chile 1814-2006

– in: Radical History Review – 2007 – p.44-48

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Museo de la Memoria supports the application of human rights. Therefore I believe Museo de

la Memoria promotes diplomatic and non-violent ways of resolving conflict. The publication

and processing of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Declaration of the

Rights of the Child in their exhibition substantiates this statement. Different initiatives are

taken to educate the importance of human rights to children333. The exhibition as a whole is

aimed at the promotion of human rights, by pointing out what can happen if the human

rights are not respected. The images and references to other similar conflicts and similar

solutions emphasises the importance of Human Rights. Museo de la Memoria does not follow

the Vía Chilena when it comes to resolving conflict, since they promote a more peaceful way.

In other areas Museo de la Memoria does follow the Vía Chilena, for instance by promoting

Chilean nationality and unity. Indirectly Catholic values are promoted, for instance by the

creation of the ‘Ausencia y Memoria’ room, in which artificial candle lights commemorate the

dead, symbolise the hopes for the afterlife and refer to Christ and redemption334. The cross in

the entrance hall also refers to religion. Different pamphlets, such as the one of the World

Federation of Democratic Youth and the ‘Liberdad a los presos políticos’ pamphlet, emphasise

the importance of religion335.

Taking into consideration that Museo de la Memoria uses the reports of the truth

commissions as a point of reference, it is no surprise that the museum fits in well with the

recommendations. Reparations should be made by accepting the truth and restoring the

moral dignity of the victims, said the Rettig Commission, both of which are exemplified in

Museo de la Memoria336. The wall of images, as well as the different posters portraying victims

are in line with the recommended reparations. The respect by which personal items,

333 Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos - Sobre Educación – in:

http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/educacion/sobre-educacion/ consulted on 18.07.2012 334 Ann Lovelace, Joy White – Beliefs, Values and Traditions. 2th edition – Heinemann Educational

Publishers – Oxford – 2002 – p.85 335 World Federation of Democratic Youth – Por Chile 336 Chilean Nation Commission on Truth and Reconciliation – Report of the Chilean National

Commission on Truth and Reconciliation – University of Notre Dame Press – Indiana – Vol. I/II – 1993

– p. 1057

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testimonies and drawings are treated shows again the restoration of the moral dignity of the

victims.

The pleas of President Aylwin, Pope John Paul II and President Lagos to look forward and

leave the past behind are only partially met337. Different fragments of ‘Videos Memoria’ show

that Chileans history is used as foundation to highlight the values and importance of

democracy and human rights. The memories of the return of democracy started a process of

progression. The memories encourage progress and also warn Chilean society of the dangers

when not deliberately thinking about the future.

Although the ideals of truth and justice are propagated by Museo de la Memoria, forgiveness

and reconciliation are two recommendations of the truth commission who are not apparent in

the images338. Indeed, conditions of reconciliation are created and different sides of Chileans

recent history are told to a certain extent, but reconciliation does not appear in words or in

images. The very existence of Museo de la Memoria proves that they are battling against

those willing to leave behind, forget or burke the events of Pinochet’s dictatorship.

Museo de la Memoria uses articles form different newspapers and authors, the horizon is

broadened. One can still make a distinction between newspapers loyal to the dictatorship of

Pinochet, such as ‘El Mercurio’ and ‘La Tercera’, and alternative newspapers. Similarly,

pamphlets and photographs can found in support or opposed of Pinochet. This makes it

difficult to detect the visual discourse of Museo de la Memoria, since they use a lot of images

and pamphlets created by other people. This means that I can only detect their discourse

indirectly by looking at the positioning of different elements and the quantity of the

elements339. I believe Museo de la Memoria, although trying to stay objective, highlights the

337 Paley – Marketing Democracy – p.127

Stern – Reckoning with Pinochet – p.326 338 Chilean Nation Commission on Truth and Reconciliation – Report of the Chilean National

Commission on Truth and Reconciliation – University of Notre Dame Press – Indiana – Vol. I/II – 1993

– p. 1057 339 Quantity differences will most certainly appear, given that that pinochetistas and former members of

the military are sticking to their pact of silence. Therefore I can assume that the victims side of story

will be more present.

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story of the victims more. The different pamphlets on the referendum if Pinochet could stay,

are organised in a way that the brochures of pinochetistas are positioned at the bottom, while

the brochures of the opposition can be found at all levels of the display area. The visitors’ eye

is thus more likely to see pamphlets of Pinochet’s opposition. Usually people put elements

they dislike at the bottom, while the top shows what they desire most. On the second floor, the

visitor can only see actions against Pinochet, without showing his realisations. Even though

speeches of Pinochet are included in the videos of Museo de la Memoria, no pinochetista is

asked to give his opinion on memory. These elements lead me to conclude that Museo de la

Memoria is trying to stay objective, some elements show their preference for the other side.

The government fits within the golden mean perspective in combination with the golden rule

principle of Lester’s ethical philosophies. Indeed the government tried to find a middle

ground between two extreme positions while honouring Christian tradition340. I believe that

Museo de la Memoria also fits within these positions. The museum tries to find a middle

ground in portraying the different opinions in Chilean society, while using Christian values.

However, I do believe Museo de la Memoria makes conscious choices when deciding which

articles or photographs they exhibit. Therefore, the museum uses the utilitarianism principle.

E. CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE

Culture plays an immense role in understanding and comprehending signs. Although

Charles Pierce, one of the pioneers of semiotics created a useful division of signs, I prefer the

division made by Arthur Asa Berger341 . The signs or codes of Berger fit better with the

intentions of my investigation. Berger distinguishes four codes specifically analogic,

metonymic, displaced and condensed codes.

Barahona de Brito, Alexandra, Carmen Gonzáles-Enriquez en Paloma, Aguilar eds – The Politics of

Memory. Transitional Justice in Democratizing Societies – Oxford University Press – Oxford – 2001 – p.

150 340 Lester – Visual communication.– p. 125-126 341 David Zemmels, School of Mass Communication Loyola University New Orleans – Visual

Communication Theories – in:

http://loyno.edu/~zemmels/A201/lecture/visual_theory/comm_theory.html - consulted on 04.07.2012

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Analogic code combines signs with mental comparisons, as portrayed in the logo of Museo de

la Memoria342. The logo consists of a symbolic reproduction of the main building, the ark. It

symbolises that that memory is a view on the future with knowledge of the past. The lines on

the building represent that a memory museum has a non-linear time perspective. The logo is

thus a metaphor for the interpretation of memory.

Other pictures showing analogic codes are family photographs of parents holding their

children. The photos seem fairly ordinary and can probably be found in any family album.

Ochsner believes people relate to these kinds of pictures, because of their familiarity.

Similarly, personal objects, photographs and fragments of victims such as diaries and

drawings, are also exhibited. They also help the identification process in bringing the past

more in the present life. This identification process helps enhancing the message contained

within the photographs and the museum, in this case the rejection and convicting of torture

and human rights abuses. The world map made of similar pictures in the entrance hall can be

seen as one of these codes. The pictures symbolise truth commissions and solidarity of all

victims of war and torture.

Displaced codes transfers meaning from one set of signs to others. The plus sign as shown in

different pictures symbolises nunca más or never again. The words are in the first place

formulated as protest against the disappearances and human rights violations that took place

during the dictatorship. In addition, nunca más is a promise that these atrocities will never

happen again, as well as a complaint against the atrocities that did occur. Furthermore, the

expression is often used to demand truth and justice. The connotation of these meanings is

transferred to the plus sign.

Similarly, the disappeared are often represented by black and white portraits. However,

Felman believes that the disappeared are expressionless343. They haunt society unable to tell

their story and often deprived of their human face. This meaning is transferred to the blank

canvases in the wall of images. As long as no body is found, there is no proof of what has

342 The Logo of Museo de la Memoria can be found in Appendix 1 – 1.2 Logo of Museo de la Memoria –

p.142 343 Felman – The Juridicial Unconscious – p. 13

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happened to them. They remain voiceless, but their stillness speaks louder than a thousand

words.

Most of these symbols derive their meaning from society in general or specific groups of

society. Truth, reconciliation and the emphasis on human rights can be linked to the largest

part of Chilean society. Pinochetistas often still refuse to talk about the past, meaning they do

not support the truth claim. Truth, justice, remembrance and respect are four concepts

derived from former victims, family members and the truth commissions. Since the truth

commissions are a point of reference, it is only logical that elements of their discourse are

used. Museo de la Memoria also uses an international human rights discourse, meaning that

they use tactics and elements to promote human rights similar to the ones used all over the

world. The references and processing of the Declaration of the Universal Human Rights and

The Universal Rights of the Child are evidence of this. This means that foreign visitors can

find familiar elements in Museo de la Memoria’s discourse.

F. CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE

Museo de la Memoria uses images, pamphlets and documents in various ways. Firstly, they

support the story of the written or spoken text, and at the same time they create the possibility

of learning more about certain stories. The visitor is free in choosing what elements he wants

to deepen. Visualising elements in combination with written text is one of the strongest forms

of communication, according to Bloomer. The combination of word and image leads with

certainty to the visitors’ comprehension of the message about human rights and memory.

Secondly, the discourse of the images, although not created by the museum itself, contributes

significant elements to the discourse of Museo de la Memoria. The use of colour creates

indirect messages, such as the creation of unity between Chilean people. The orange colour of

some brochures might contribute in healing the wounds of the past and the fact that

testimonies of torture are written in white on a black background in dark areas, helps

condemning torture since dark areas repel people, according to light and colour theory.

I already stated that forms help process the image of pamphlet meticulously and that they

help create direction. The vertical lines across the wall of Museo de la Memoria’s primary

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exhibition area, stop the eye and make visitors inspect the immediate vicinity of these vertical

bars. Along the wall frames hang photographs of victims of Pinochet. In addition, empty

frames can be found, which symbolize the presence of the disappeared. The familiarity of

these photographs creates a sense of identity and makes the reality of the impact of Pinochet’s

reign more real344. However, the arrangement makes it difficult to see the individual content

of every picture. Visitors are more impressed by the totality of the pictures, unintentionally

indicating a devaluation of the pictures 345 . Although the identification process might be

disturbed by this arrangement, the message confined within these photographs still remains

the same. The pictures are portrayed to create the possibility of commemoration. Combined

with the message behind the presence of the empty frames, the importance of human rights

and democracy is emphasised.

Although the exhibition is designed in a chronological way, I cannot detect demarcations of

different time segments between the images. The fact that certain images keep returning

throughout the whole exhibition, makes it even harder to follow the sequence of events.

G. COMBINING ALL ELEMENTS

It was difficult to detect the visual discourse of Museo de la Memoria because different

discourses of various parties of Chilean society are used, in order to maintain an objective feel.

I have however discovered that Museo de la Memoria uses a museum discourse. The images

have a supporting role and attract visitors to different parts of the exhibition. The fact that

different points of view are present in the museum can only be encouraged. The images used

on the website of the museum are the only element that is working against a museum

discourse. The rather meaningless pictures contain mainly gatherings of people. Only

sporadically the visitor captures a glimpse of the structure and contents of the museum.

I can also conclude that a human rights discourse is present in the visual discourse of Museo

de la Memoria. The frequent references to nunca más in video’s and in photographs declare

that human rights violations and torture will never happen again in Chile. Indirectly portraits

344 Ochsner - Understanding the Holocaust through the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum - p. 242 345 Ibid.

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of victims condemn the use of torture and infringements of the human rights. Conveniently,

the values of human rights correspond relatively well with the values of democracy.

I found evidence of a memory discourse in the fact that many family photos and children

drawings were used in the exhibition. Some pamphlets reference roses in order to

commemorate and respect victims. The fact that Museo de la Memoria built a room with

artificial candle lights, looking over photographs of victims of the Pinochet era, emphasises

the importance of memory.

Although the truth commissions are a point of reference for Museo de la Memoria, I did not

detect any indications of a reconciliation discourse in the images or pamphlets of Museo de la

Memoria.

Similar to the language discourse, the visual discourse is partly explained by the envisioned

visitors. Researchers, scholars and students benefit from the offered discourse. Showing the

different sides and perspectives of the story, gives a more accurate picture of reality. The

emphasis on human rights and remembrance, combined with the indirect prominence of

similarities between all members of Chilean society correspond with the idea of former

detainees, family members and the government. Indirectly, the governmental plea to look to

the future and move forward is met. Different elements of the internal Chilean debate on how

to preserve and live with the memory of the Pinochet dictatorship are reflected in Museo de la

Memoria’s visual discourse.

3.3 CONCLUSION

Different kinds of history and memory live side by side, sometimes tied together in an inter-

subjective framework. Chilean society is indeed still split when it comes to the memory of the

reign of Pinochet. Although the government has made several attempts to close the memory

box and restructure social memory, none of these attempts really succeeded. Pinochet

supports stay silent and hope for oblivion. Victims and family members are sometimes still

battling for justice and memory. The question remains which position Museo de la Memoria

occupies in this debate, especially since they are founded by the government. By taking a

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closer look at their discourse, I was able to detect what aspects of memory are enhanced, why

they are enhanced and how they are emphasised.

Museo de la Memoria was created by the government following the recommendations of the

truth commissions. Because of its size and official collection, Museo de la Memoria has no real

competition and is therefore often visited by Chileans and foreign tourists. Therefore,

elements of a museum discourse can be found. In every form of communication towards

visitors, Museo de la Memoria uses a direct and formal language. The exhibition is divided

into different subsections, each with individual titles and adapted texts and images. All

statements are supported by figures and verifiable elements. This is partly due to the great

diversity of material. As a result of judicious use of colour and light, the visitors are guided

through the museum creating attraction by changing the size and feel of the exhibition areas.

Museo de la Memoria also takes into account visitors of different age.

The building of Museo de la Memoria contains elements of a remembrance and memory

discourse. The open space, or Plaza de Memoria, makes visitors see the interconnections

between the lines of the building. These lines symbolise characteristics of memory defined by

the architects. Especially the reappearance and evolvement of memory is represented. The

hints of non-linear lines in the design, as well as the arrangement of the exhibition inside

show the non-linearity of memory. The non-linearity is also represented in the logo of Museo

de la Memoria. Slightly contradicting, the name and shape op Museo de la Memoria enhance

the linear process of memory. ‘The Ark’ symbolises the process of moving forward with

knowledge of the past, portraying in this way one of the attempts of government to

restructure the memory question.

Inside, remembrance is encouraged by billboards containing active language combined with

references to President Michelle Bachelet’s inauguration speech and notes on other

memorials. The combination of commemorating and honouring art pieces and wall of images

show the importance Museo de la Memoria attaches to memory. The creation of the memory

room with references to the vélaton, which also respects en commemorates victims by

lighting candles, enhances again the importance of memory. In the museum’s video’s,

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different views of memory can be detected. Some prefer oblivion, others mourn their loved

one by remembering and the last group believes sharing memory is the best way to prevent

that history repeats itselve.

Indeed, remembrance forms the foundation on which the importance and emphasis of the

human rights discourse is built. The purpose of the museum is to highlight the consequences

if the values and principles of human rights are not present in society. The emotional

connection to recurring expression like nunca más highlights the message that Chileans will

never go back to those times. Combined with the frequent appearances of dónde están and

photographs of victims of the Pinochet era, stress indirectly the importance of human rights.

Museo de la Memoria often uses elements of the international discourse of human rights.

Relatively often Museo de la Memoria refers to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

and the Rights of the Child. In the entrance hall Chilean history is combined with the history

of nations around the world through the creation of a map. Exhibiting this map and

information on the other truth commissions solidarity, one of human rights values, is

expressed, as well as memory. The frequent appearance and highlighting of human rights

and their basic values, point out the importance the museum attaches to them in the

education.

When combining architectural elements with visual and textual elements, different

references to religion appear. The name of the Museo de la Memoria’s building for instance,

refers to a Catholic parable. The values of human rights are also important in religion and

symbols of peace and respect for the dead, support the hypothesis that there is a religious

discourse in Museo de la Memoria. Catholic values are indeed, a unifying element in Chilean

society and fits therefore well within the recommendations of the truth commissions.

Although I presumed that elements of a reconciliation discourse could be found in the

discourse of Museo de la Memoria, conversely the contrary is true. Reconciliation is not

mentioned in the constitution act of Museo de la Memoria. Since it was stated that the truth

commissions acted as a point of reference, I mistakenly believed that reconciliation elements

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would be present. However, because of the similarities between the promotion of human

rights and the values of democracy, the latter are defended.

Part of Museo de la Memoria’s discourse can be explained by the discourse of the creators,

namely the government. The government wanted to emphasise the importance of human

rights connected to democracy. The intent was to move forward as a unified Chile and leave

the past behind. These elements can thus be found in Museo de la Memoria’s discourse.

Nonetheless, the museum does not completely support the idea of moving forward. The

architectural design combined with the emphasis on the importance of memory, places

Museo de la Memoria closer to the ideas of victims and their family members. Remembering,

respecting and mourning the dead are elements derived from their ideas. The presence of

researchers, scholars and students accounts for the recurrent appearance of human rights, and

elements of testimony. Even though pinochetistas did not contribute in creating Museo de la

Memoria, their ideas are still slightly visible. In the museum, the different opinions and

positions of the memory debate in Chile are represented, although in an unequal way.

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CONCLUSION

I started this thesis by pointing out that the memories of the Pinochet years are multiple and

complex. Pinochetistas create their own narrative by staying silent, opponents of Pinochet and

victims of his dictatorship demand truth, justice and remembrance, while the government

tries to find a middle ground, hoping to unite Chileans and move forward. Through critical

discourse analysis of two different discourses, seeing that the third one consists of silence, I

hoped to lay bare the process of moulding memory to make it fit a specific idea.

By choosing Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos and Villa Grimaldi, Corporación

Parque por la Paz for my inquiry, I did not only choose to study two different narratives, but I

also chose to compare the oldest and newest museum on the Pinochet memory of Santiago

with each other. The first difference between both museums can be found in the architecture.

While Villa Grimaldi decided to preserve a former detention centre, Museo de la Memoria

established a new build. A first contrast in discourse becomes apparent. Whereas Villa

Grimaldi chose to conserve the history and memory connected to a location, Museo de la

Memoria contrasts memory by creating something new. That contrast indicates the message

of progress and evolution.

On the basis of a discursive analysis of Villa Grimaldi and Museo de la Memoria, I conclude

that both museums use a memory and human rights discourse. Both museums use memory

as the basis to explain and emphasise the importance of human rights. However, the way in

which they use memory is very different. Villa Grimaldi tells a coherent story that visitors

must accept without documented evidence. Notwithstanding recent attempts, the history of

the dictatorship is mainly told from a victims’ perspective putting blame on the military,

without giving them a chance to explain their motives. Through the use of symbols and

methods of identification with the victims, Villa Grimaldi’s message is conveyed to the visitor.

Museo de la Memoria on the other hand tells history using facts that are verified by the truth

commissions, granting more authority to the story. It is not always easy to make a distinction

between the main story and various side stories. Nonetheless, the visitor gets a more nuanced

view of recent Chilean history. Combined with various documental evidences, the visitor has

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the power to decide for himself whether or not to agree with a certain opinion. Different

perspectives on history are portrayed, but it is clear that here too, the blame is designated to

the military dictatorship. Museo de la Memoria uses however, less symbols and methods of

identification.

The difference between both museums can partly be explained by variations in the perception

of distance between the past and the present. Villa Grimaldi is still fighting for justice and

truth because they believe the past is still active in the present. Hence their catchphrase El

olvido está lleno de memoria. Museo de la Memoria on the other hand believes the past is

inactive in the current time. They share this opinion with the government. Memory should

therefore be used as a view on the future with knowledge of that past. The reference to the

parable of Noah when naming the museum, can be seen as proof.

Similarly, the use of light can be interpreted in an analogous way. While Villa Grimaldi shows

the past in bright daylight, bringing the times gone by into the present, Museo de la Memoria

uses darkened rooms to exhibit physical evidence and testimonies of victims. Using dimmed

light, not only protects the materials from damage, but the light also creates a sense of

wonderment, given that the exhibited objects are perceived as old. This indirect message also

enhances the difference between the past and the present.

That difference in using and understanding memory is also portrayed on the websites of both

museums. Villa Grimaldi tells its story and shows images of the park not so much different

from when one actually visits the museum, while Museo de la Memoria’s website only

focusses on their activities without sharing much of their exhibition. I dare argue that Museo

de la Memoria uses memory as a means to an end, namely to promote human rights and

democracy. Villa Grimaldi on the other hand works with memory and tries to understand it.

The memory question of Chile still remains multiple and complex. Although using similar

methods, Chileans did not yet reach a consensus of truth when reckoning with Pinochet.

Different researchers and different museums are unable to agree on how to deal with the past.

Museums and researchers should therefore still search for a collective memory and

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recognition of history. Disregarded memories can be included in the debate, in order to

achieve a more inclusive historical narrative to recover from the Pinochet era.

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NEDERLANDSTALIGE SAMENVATTING

De koude oorlog tussen Amerika en Rusland legde de basis voor conflicten in Latijns

Amerika, beter bekend onder de naam ‘Vuile Oorlogen’. De ideeën van sociale

rechtvaardigheid, revolutie en gelijkheid hadden hun weg gevonden naar Chili in 1970 met

de verkiezing van een socialistische regering onder President Allende. Op 11 september 1973

pleegde de politieke tegenpool, Generaal Augusto Pinochet een staatsgreep. Zeventien jaar

lang hield Pinochet het Chileense volk in de greep van zijn dictatuur door iedere vorm van

oppositie uit te schakelen.

Na de terugkeer van de democratie in 1990, werden herhaaldelijk pogingen ondernomen om

dit pijnlijk verleden te verwerken. Waarheidscommissies probeerden de waarheid te

achterhalen en verzoening te promoten, maar de Chileense samenleving bleef verdeeld. Tot

op de dag van vandaag blijft de herinnering aan de Pinochet jaren door de vele verschillende

visies bijzonder complex. Aanhangers van Pinochet hullen zich in stilzwijgen, slachtoffers en

familieleden van verdwenen personen eisen waarheid, herdenking en gerechtigheid en de

overheid probeert het verleden op een respectvolle manier achter zich te laten en naar de

toekomst te kijken.

In deze studie probeer ik een deel van dit complexe geheugen te ontwarren door twee

discours van verschillende musea met elkaar te vergelijken. Villa Grimaldi, Corporación

Parque por la Paz beschouw ik als een afgezant ter verdediging van de slachtoffers en

familieleden, terwijl Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos het herineringsdiscours

van de overheid representeert.

Ik creëerde mijn eigen variant van kritische discoursanalyse waarin ik startte met het

onderzoek naar het discours van een museum en zijn omgeving. Daarbij bekeek ik eerst de

locatie en de gevolgen die deze kan hebben op het discours. Vervolgens nam ik ook de

architecturale elementen onder handen om te kijken welke signalen en symbolen betekenis

kunnen geven aan het discours aan de binnenkant van het museum. Bovendien keek ik naar

het gebruik van kleur en licht om accenten en oriëntatie van de tentoonstellingen te bepalen.

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In de analyse van taal, startte ik met het onderzoeken van de invloeden die diverse

discoursgroepen kunnen hebben op het taalgebruik van een museum. Vervolgens bepaalde ik

welke tekstsoorten aanwezig zijn in het museum en welke kenmerken zij dragen. Nadien

bestudeerde ik de relaties tussen zinnen, alvorens over te schakelen naar de connecties en

connotaties op vlak van woorden. Wanneer videofragmenten aanwezig waren, bestudeerde ik

de lichaamssignalen van de diverse sprekers.

Aansluitend onderzocht ik de beelden die aanwezig waren in het museum. In een eerste fase

werden aan de hand van visuele perceptietheorieën elementen van aantrekking bepaald en

gekoppeld aan voorkennis. Vervolgens bepaalde ik de verschillende afbeeldingsgenres en hun

evolutie voor ik de technische aspecten zoals de creatie van diepte, onder de loep nam. Met

behulp van Lesters onderverdeling van ethische principes, bepaalde ik de ethische

boodschappen die vervat zitten in de beelden. Naderhand probeerde ik signalen te herkennen

en te plaatsen binnen de cultuur waarin de beelden gebruikt of vervaardigd werden. Met een

kritische blik probeerde ik ook connecties met andere beelden te achterhalen en te duiden.

Villa Grimaldi gebruikt naast het te verwachten museumdiscours ook een

herinneringsdiscours. De locatie van het voormalig detentiecentrum Cuartel Terranova,

verklaart de aanwezigheid van dit discours slechts deels. Zowel het gebruik van foto’s en

reconstructies op de website als de site benadrukken dit herinneringsdiscours. Oud-

gevangenen worden bovendien vaak geraadpleegd en gevraagd om herinneringen op te

halen. Daarnaast gebruikt Villa Grimaldi ook een mensenrechtendiscours. Het onverstoorbare

gebruik van antoniemen en contrasterende foto’s leidt ertoe dat het nut van mensenrechten

benadrukt wordt en dat een beschuldigende vinger naar Pinochet en zijn aanhangers wordt

gericht. Hoewel ook elementen van religie gevonden worden in het discours van Villa

Grimaldi, wordt verzoening niet gepromoot. Dit druist in tegen de taken die in de

ontstaansacte en in de missieverklaring van het vredespark staan.

Museo de la Memoria is opgericht als museum en gebruikt dus logischerwijs een

museumdiscours. Aan de hand van staatsdocumenten, pamfletten en foto’s wordt het recente,

dictatoriale verleden van Chili vanuit diverse perspectieven uit de doeken gedaan. De

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aanwezigheid van herdenkingsmonumenten of kunstwerken en foto’s versterkt het

herinneringsdiscours. Daarnaast gebruikt Museo de la Memoria een mensenrechtendiscours.

Zowel architecturale elementen als veelvuldige herhalingen en verwijzingen naar De

Universele Verklaring van de Rechten van de Mens kunnen aangereikt worden als bewijs.

Bovendien worden waarden die het belang van mensenrechten aantonen extra in de verf

gezet. De landkaart gevormd uit foto’s en de verwijzingen naar andere landen met

waarheidscommissies benadrukt onder meer solidariteit. De promotie van democratie gaat

hand in hand met het accentueren van deze waarden. Hoewel de waarheidscommissies

dienden als referentiepunt voor Museo de la Memoria, is er geen sprake van een

verzoeningsdiscours.

Hoewel Villa Grimaldi en Museo de la Memoria ogenschijnlijk een soortgelijk discours

voeren, is niets minder waar. De invulling van herinnering en geheugen is behoorlijk

verschillend. Villa Grimaldi behoedde een oud detentiekamp voor complete vernieling en

gebruikt de locatie nu als vredespark, terwijl Museo de la Memoria een nieuw gebouw plantte

in het midden van Santiago. Dit nieuwe gebouw staat symbool voor de vooruitgang van Chili

sinds het einde van de dictatuur. Deze idee sluit aan bij het discours van de overheid en staat

in contrast met dat van Villa Grimaldi die de herinneringen zo veel mogelijk koestert.

Zowel Villa Grimaldi als Museo de la Memoria benadrukken het nut van mensenrechten aan

de hand van het verleden. De manier waarop ze hun boodschap benadrukken gebeurt echter

op verschillende manieren. Villa Grimaldi vertelt een coherent verhaal aan zijn bezoekers

zonder dat zij hiervoor ook maar enig gedocumenteerd bewijs krijgen. Via identificatie met

slachtoffers en het gebruik van symbolen ter ere van de slachtoffers, wordt het belang van

mensenrechten aangekaart. Museo de la Memoria daarentegen, bouwt zijn verhaal op aan de

hand van door de waarheidscommissie geverifieerde stellingen. In combinatie met de vele

documenten, straalt het verhaal van Museo de la Memoria dan ook behoorlijk wat autoriteit

uit. Hoewel het museum ook wel gebruik maakt van methodes van identificatie met

slachtoffers en symbolen ter nagedachtenis van deze slachtoffers, zijn deze toch minder

aanwezig.

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Het verschil tussen beide musea kan deels verklaard worden door een verschil in perceptie

over de afstand tussen het heden en het verleden. Villa Grimaldi vecht nog steeds voor

gerechtigheid en waarheid, aangezien dit museum gelooft dat het verleden nog steeds actief

is in het heden. Dat verklaart ook hun slagzin El olvido está lleno de memoria. Museo de la

Memoria daarentegen, gelooft net als de Chileense overheid, dat het verleden niet meer actief

is in de hedendaagse maatschappij. Herinnering en geheugen moeten daarom gezien worden

als een kijk op de toekomst met kennis van het verleden. Het is geen toeval dat de naam van

het museum refereert naar de parabel van Noa, waarin hij letterlijk het verleden achter zich

laat.

Het gebruik van licht kan op dezelfde wijze geïnterpreteerd worden. Villa Grimaldi bekijkt het

verleden in het natuurlijke, hedendaagse daglicht en brengt daardoor het verleden terug in

het hedendaagse leven. Daartegenover staat Museo de la Memoria die verduisterde en

donkere ruimten gebruikt om objecten en getuigenissen van slachtoffers tentoon te stellen.

Oude objecten worden vaak getoond onder gedimde lichten om ze te beschermen tegen

beschadigingen. Daardoor wordt een gevoel van verwondering en nieuwsgierigheid

gecreëerd. Op een indirecte manier maakt Museo de la Memoria opnieuw duidelijk dat er een

groot onderscheid bestaat tussen het heden en het verleden.

Het verschil in afstand tussen beide invullingen van het verleden, vindt ook weerklank op de

websites van beide musea. Villa Grimaldi vertelt zijn verhaal en toont het museum op een

manier die niet erg verschilt van de ervaring die je krijgt wanneer je op de site loopt. De

website van Museo de la Memoria, concentreert zich dan weer meer op de taken en het belang

van mensenrechten, zonder veel te vertellen of te tonen van de tentoonstelling. Daarom durf

ik beweren dat Museo de la Memoria herinnering gebruikt als een werkinstrument om

mensenrechten en democratie te promoten. Dit in sterk contrast met Villa Grimaldi die

probeert te werken met herinnering om deze te begrijpen.

Het herinneringsvraagstuk van Chili blijft met andere woorden complex. Hoewel

ogenschijnlijk gelijke methodes worden gebruikt om het verleden te herdenken, slagen de

Chilenen er niet om een consensus te bereiken met betrekking tot het verwerken van

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Pinochets dictatuur. Verschillende onderzoekers uit verschillende musea slagen er niet in om

het verleden op een zelfde manier te vertellen en te herinneren. Musea en onderzoekers

moeten dus nog steeds zoeken naar een collectieve herinnering en erkenning van de

geschiedenis. In de doofpot gestopte herinneringen kunnen opgenomen worden in het debat

in de hoop op deze manier een meer inclusief historisch verhaal te bekomen van het tijdperk

Pinochet.

127

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ANDERE

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CORPORACIÓN VILLA GRIMALDI PARQUE POR LA PAZ

Área de Educación /Corporación Parque por la Paz Villa Grimaldi - Acerca de los Cuadernos

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Conciencia en el Chile actual. Seminario y Taller

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Izquierda Chilena. Video 1 Actores Políticos de la Sociedad Chilena 1960 – 1973

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138

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ANDERE

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http://villagrimaldi.cl/historia/antes-de-1973/ - consulted on 30.06.2012

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por-la-paz/la-celda/ - consulted on 01.07.2012

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http://villagrimaldi.cl/parque-por-la-paz/monumento-rieles-2/ - consulted on 01.07.2012

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on 15.07.2012

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labor desarrollada por el Museo de la Memoria – in: http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/corte-

interamericana-de-ddhh-destaca-labor-desarrollada-por-el-museo-de-la-memoria/ - consulted

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Países Nórdicos – in: http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/expos/cronologias-solidaridad-con-

chile-de-los-paises-nordicos/ - consulted on 15.07.2012

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consulted on 14.07.2012

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141

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14.07.2012

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permamente del Museo de la Memoria – in: http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/expos/la-

geometria-de-la-conciencia/ - consulted on: 16.07.2012

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http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/expos/la-lucha-de-las-mujeres/ - consulted on 15.07.2012

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http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/expos/muestra-permanente/ - consulted on: 14.07.2012

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http://www.museodelamemoria.cl/expos/caballito-de-mar/ - consulted on 15.07.2012

Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos - Segundo aniversario del Área de Educación

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del-area-de-educacion-en-el-museo-de-la-memoria/ - consulted on 15.07.2012

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142

APPENDIX

APPENDIX 1: MUSEUM LOGOS

1.1 Logo of Villa Grimaldi

1.2 Logo of Museo de la Memoria

143

APPENDIX 2: BLUEPRINT AND ARCHITECTURE

2.1 Blueprint and architecture of Villa Grimaldi

First view Mosaic sign

Lay-out

144

Sealed entrance gate

Rieles Monument

145

The tower

The wall of names

146

2.2 Blueprint and architecture of Museo de la Memoria346

346 When visiting Museo de la Memoria, I had to sign a contract stating I would not distribute pictures

of elements of the exhibition, because of the right of privacy, among other reasons.

“Glass elevator”

147

Museum

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

148

The corner like exhibition space

Wall of images and glass protrusion

149

Sketch

Nunca Más