Investigar en Salud Mental

7/27/2019 Investigar en Salud Mental

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INVESTING IN

MENTAL HEALTH:

E VIDENCE FOR ACTION


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WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Investing in mental health: evidence or action.

1.Mental disorders economics. 2.Mental health

services economics. 3.Financial support. 4.

Health promotion economics. I.World Health

Organization.

ISBN 978 92 4 156461 8

(NLM classifcation: WM 30)

Wor Hah Oraizaio 2013

All rights reserved. Publications o the World

Health Organization are available on the WHO web

site (www.who.int) or can be purchased rom WHO

Press, World Health Organization, 20 Avenue

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WHO Press through the WHO web site

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o the World Health Organization concerning the

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Printed in Switzerland

AcknOWledgements

This report was prepared by Dan Chisholm,

working under the direction o Shekhar Saxena

(Department o Mental Health and Substance

Abuse, WHO). The eedback and comments on a

drat version o the report by WHO colleagues

(Natalie Drew, Devora Kestel, Matt Muijen,Sebastiana Nkomo, Nicole Valentine, Mark Van

Ommeren) and external experts (Pamela Collins,

Mary de Silva, Oye Gureje, Crick Lund, David

McDaid, Alredo Pemjean, Marc Suhrcke, Mark

Tomlinson, Harvey Whiteord) are very warmly

acknowledged.

Technical editing:

David Bramley (Switzerland)

Graphic design and layout:

Erica Lestad (Germany)


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INVESTING IN

MENTAL HEALTH:

EV IDENCE FOR ACTION


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CONTENTS

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SuMMAry

What is mental health?

What is the value o mental health?How might dierent social values inluence investment in mental health?

What can governments do to improve population mental health?

Conclusion

What is the current state o investment?

What is the basis or renewed investment into mental hea lth systems?

Human rights protection

Public health and economic burden

Cost and cost-eectiveness

Equitable access and inancial protection (universal health coverage)

Conclusion

Mental health and social values

Mental health action and innovation

rEfErENCES

Appendix 1. Six perspectives on the value base or individual or

collective decision-making

Appendix 2. Market ai lures with respect to mental health and health care

Appendix 3. Identi ying interventions that are cost-e ective, aordable and easible

Appendix 4. Summary o evidence o e ectiveness or mhGAP prior ity condit ions


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SuMMAry

Mental health and well-being are undamental to

our collective and individual ability as humans to

think, emote, interact with each other, earn a

living and enjoy lie. They directly underpin the

core human and social values o independence o

thought and action, happiness, riendship and

solidarity. On this bas is, the promotion, protection

and restoration o mental health can be regarded

as a vital concern o individuals, communities andsocieties throughout the world.

However, current reality presents a very di erent

picture. The ormation o individual and collective

mental capital especially in the earlier stages o

lie is being held back by a range o avoidable

risks to mental health, while individuals with

mental health problems are shunned,

discriminated against and denied basic rights,

including access to essential care. Accentuated

by low levels o service availability, the current

and projected burdens o mental disorders are o

signiicant concern not only or public health but

also or economic development and social

welare.

In this report, potential reasons or this apparent

contradiction between cherished human values

and observed socia l actions are explored with aview to better ormulating concrete steps that

governments and other stakeholders can take to

reshape social attitudes and public policy.

The repor t shows that a strong case can be

made or investing in mental health whether to

enhance individual and population health and

well-being, protect human rights, improve

economic e iciency, or move towards universal

health coverage. The report also identiies a

number o barriers that continue to inluence

collective values and decision-making including

negative cultural attitudes towards mental illnessand a predominant emphasis on the creation or

retention o wealth (rather than the promotion o

societal well-being).

In partnership with all relevant stakeholders,

governments have a lead role to play in reshaping

the debate about mental health, addressing

current barriers and shortcomings, and

responding to the escalating burden o mental

disorders. Key actions that would mark a

renewed commitment to promote, protect and

restore mental health include: better inormation,

awareness and education about mental health

and illness; improved health and social services

or persons with mental disorders; and enhanced

legal, social and inancial protection or persons,

amilies or communities adversely aected by

mental disorders.


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1. INTrOduCTION


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INVESTING IN MENTAL HEALTH: EVIDENCE FOR ACTION

Mental health or psychological well-being is an

integral part o an individuals capacity to lead

a ulilling lie, including the ability to orm and

maintain relationships, to study, work or pursue

leisure interests, and to make day-to-day

decisions about education, employment, housing

or other choices. Disturbances to a persons

mental well-being can adversely compromise

this capacity and the choices made, leading notonly to diminished unctioning at the individual

level but also to broader welare losses or the

household and society.

Adding up these losses within or across countries

results in some very large and disconcerting

numbers. For example, mental, neurological and

substance use disorders account or nine out o

the 20 leading causes o years lived with disability

worldwide (more than a quarter o all measured

disability) and 10% o the global burden o disease

(which includes deaths as well as disability) (1, 2).

A recent analysis by the World Economic Forum

estimated that the cumulative global impact o

mental disorders in terms o lost economic output

will amount to US$ 16 trillion over the next 20

years (3). Such an estimate marks mental health

out as ahighly signifcant concern not only

or public health but also or economicdevelopment and societal welare.

Yet this concern is not being appropriately

addressed or acted upon. Rather, the plight o

individuals suering rom mental health problems

is all too oten met with indierence or outright

prejudice by the communities and societies they

live in. This neglect is urther reected in the levels

o service provision or these vulnerable persons,

which are abysmally low in many par ts o the

world. Even among those with very serious mental

disorders such as schizophrenia, only one in 10

persons in low-income countries receives the

treatment and care they need (4).

While the extent o unmet need is daunting and the

challenges o scaling up services are many, it is

vital to recognize that there already exists a range

o preventive and treatment strategies that have

been shown to be sae, eective and aordable (5).

Thus it is not the case that lit tle or nothing can be

done. Rather, much can be done with existing

interventions, but to enable their eective

deployment will require a major change in socialattitudes and public policy. That is why this report

in support o WHOs Comprehensive Mental

Health Action Plan 20132020 (6) calls or

renewed public policy commitment to promote,

protect and restore the mental health o

populations.

This repor t is an update o an earlier WHO repor t

that also carried the title Investing in mental health

(7), but it now incorporates new evidence and

additional arguments. As in the earlier report,

the primary aim is to provide national and

international policy-makers, decision-makers

and unding agencies with a synthesis o

the arguments that have been and can be

advanced in support o renewed action and

investment.

Specifcally, the report sets out:

to present key reasons or investing in mental

health rom a range o perspectives, including

public health, economic welare and social

equity (the conceptual case or investment);

to highlight priorities or investment in mental

health (the evidence-based case or investment).


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2. MENTAL HEALTH

ANd SOCIAL VALuES:THE CONCEpTuAL CASE fOr INVESTMENT


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What is mental health?

Mental health is an indispensable par t o health,

and has been defned by WHO as a state o well-

being in which every individual realizes his or her

own potential, can cope with the normal stresses

o lie, can work productively and ruit ully, and is

able to make a contribution to her or his

community (8).

Mental illness, on the other hand, reers to

suering, disability or morbidity due to mental,

neurological and substance use disorders, which

can arise due to the genetic, biological and

psychological make-up o individuals as well as

adverse social conditions and environmental

actors.

Investing in mental health relates both to the

promotion and protection o mental health and to

the prevention and treatment o mental illness or

disorders.

What is the value of

mental health?

The impor tance o good mental health to individualunctioning and well-being can be amply

demonstrated by reerence to values that are

undamental to the human condition (9, 10). The

ollowing values are particularly important:

Independent thought and actIon:

The capacity o individuals to manage their

thoughts, eelings and behaviour, as well as their

interactions with others, is a pivotal element o the

human condition. Unsurprisingly, health states or

conditions that rob individuals o independent

thought and action such as acute psychosis,

advanced stages o dementia or proound

intellectual disability are regarded as among the

most disabling.

pleasure, happIness and lIe

satIsactIon:

There is a longstanding and recently

re-emphasized argument that happiness

represents the ultimate goal in lie and is the truest

measure o well-being (11). Again, it is difcult, i

not impossible, or a person to ourish and eel

ulflled in lie when he or she is beset, whether

temporarily or permanently, by health problemssuch as depression and anxiety.

amIly rel atIons, rIendshIp and

socIal InteractIon:

Individuals sel-identity and capacity to ourish is

deeply inuenced by their social surroundings,

including the opportunity to orm relationships and

engage with those around them (amily members,

riends, colleagues). Loneliness, social isolation

and difculties with communication all heighten

the risk o developing or prolonging mental illness.

It is in everyones interest to nurture and uphold

these core human values, particularly in the

ormative stages o lie. Since a basic tenet o a

civil society is the provision o mutual support to

the vulnerable and those in need, there is also a

strong value basis or protecting, supporting and

rehabilitating those unortunate enough tosuccumb to mental illness.

A urther social value is the respect with which

dierent people, ideas or customs are accorded

and treated. Discrimination, abuse and

incarceration o the mentally ill all too common in

countries throughout the world y in the ace o

the cherished civic values o social solidarity,

security and tolerance.


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world health organization

hoW might differentsocial values influenceinvestment in mentalhealth?

Although the atta inment and preservation o good

mental health corresponds well to the core human

and social values described above, individual and

collective choices or decisions are inuenced by arange o other actors or values too. For example,

individuals may be prepared to do risky or stressul

work in order to increase their income, or

governments may prioritize security or economic

growth over improvements in public health.

Table 1 shows the primary concerns and values

that underpin a range o perspectives on how

social choices and decisions might be ramed:

public health, economic welare, economic

growth, equity, sociocultural inuence, and

political inuence (see Appendix 1 or a more

detailed description).

Table 2 summarizes a number o arguments that

support, and also potentially work against, greater

investment in public mental health rom these

dierent perspectives. The table shows that thereare solid arguments rom all perspectives in avour

o greater investment in public mental health, but

there are also important barriers to consider

especially the sociocultural stigma that surrounds

mental illness (since this can negatively aect

appropriate action by governments) and the act

that macroeconomic perormance oten has

priority over broader measures o societal welare.

pi pi / I

()

Public health Promote, prevent, restore and maintain

health

The attributable and aver table

burden o disease

Economic welare Maximize individual and social well-being Health as a key component o

economic welare

Economic growth

and productivity

Improve the standard o living by

increasing economic output (via more

efcient production)

Eect o reduced health

on production (labour) and

consumption (health care)

Equity Promote airness in equality o opportunity Health and access to health care

as a human right

Sociocultural

infuence

Inuence o belies, customs and attitudes

regarding the way societies perceive andorganize themselves

Perceptions or belies about the

causes o illness (stigma)

Political infuence Formulate and implement state policies,

uphold the law and, where necessary,

intervene in private markets

Market ailures in health care

(e.g. incomplete inormation among

service users)

table 1. dIerent value bases aectIng s ocIal choIces and decIsIons


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pi a i

i i i

pi i

i i i

pi Mental disorders are a major cause o the

overall disease burden; eective strategies

exist to reduce this burden

Mental disorders are not a leading

cause o mortality in populations

ei Mental and physical health are core

elements o individual welare

Other components o welare

are also impor tant (e.g. income,

consumption)

ei

ii

Mental disorders reduce labour

productivity and economic growth

The impact o mental disorders on

economic growth is not well known

(and oten assumed to be negligible)

ei Access to health is a human r ight;

discrimination, neglect and abuse

constitute human rights violations

Persons with a wide range o health

conditions currently lack access to

appropriate health care

si

i

Social support and solidarity are core

characteristics o social groupings

Negative perceptions and attitudes

about mental illness (stigma)

pii i Government policies should address

market ailures and health priorities

Low expressed demand/advocacy

or better services

table 2. supportIng arguments or, and potentIal barrIers agaInst,

Investment In m ental health


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What can governmentsdo to improve populationmental health?

As the ultimate guardians o population health,

governments have the lead responsibility to ensure

that needs are met and that the mental health o

the whole population is promoted. A urther

responsibility o and justifcation or action by governments is to orchestrate corrections to

markets that, i let uncontrolled, can give rise to

outcomes that are socially unacceptable. Such

market ailures that governments can address in

the context o mental health and health care

include the impaired understanding o aected

individuals regarding their condition, needs or

rights (incomplete inormation), the unpredictable

need or care (uncertainty), and the impacts o

mental illness on other people or health conditions

(spill-over eects) (12). Appendix 2 elaborates on

these market ailures in the context o mental

health and health care.

Moreover, there is ample international evidence

that mental disorders are disproportionately

present among the poor, either as a resul t o a drit

by those with mental health problems towards

more socially disadvantaged circumstances (dueto impaired levels o psychological or social

unctioning) or because o greater exposure to

adverse lie events among the poor (13). For

governments and international development

partners intent on reducing inequalities in access

to or uptake o health (and other welare-related)

services in short, moving towards universal

health coverage this provides a urther signifcant

justifcation or state intervent ion.

In order to address current shortcomings in the

efcient and air allocation o societal resources,

governments and other stakeholders can

undertake a number o key actions, namely:

provide betterinormation, awareness and

education about mental health and illness;

provide better (and more)health and social

care services or currently underservedpopulations with unmet needs;

provide bettersocial and fnancial protection

or persons with mental disorders, particularly

those in socially disadvantaged groups;

provide betterlegislative protection and social

suppor tor persons, amilies and communities

adversely aected by mental disorders.

The exact nature o these collective actions or

responses (e.g. the extent to which governments

actually oer social protection) will vary according

to prevailing notions o social choice in a country

and the existing health system structures and

constraints. In other words, governments do not

need to pay the entire mental health budget or

provide all services themselves (a

nongovernmental or private entity may also

contribute), but governments do have an obligation

to ensure that appropriate institutional, legal,fnancing and service arrangements are put in

place to protect human rights and to address the

mental health needs o the population.


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conclusion

At a purely conceptual level, a solid case can be

made or investing in mental health, whether on

the grounds o enhancing individual and

population health and well-being, reducing social

inequalities, protecting human rights, or improving

economic efciency. The empirical basis o each o

these our arguments is presented in Section 3 othis report.

To date, these arguments and the evidence

behind them have not been sufciently well

expressed or communicated to key stakeholders.

As pointed out in a recent analysis (14), a number

o steps need to be taken in order to urther the

cause o mental health as a pressing global health

initiative. These steps include: the development o

a unifed voice and common ramework or

engaging in public discourse; the consistent

application o an approach to mental health that is

based on social justice and human rights; and the

generation o an evidence base that not only

includes strategies or treating persons with

mental disorders but also extends to addressing

stigma, the social determinants o mental health,

and the wider impact o mental health

improvements on economic development andsocial well-being.


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3. MENTAL HEALTH

ACTION ANd

INNOVATION:THE EVIdENCE-bASEd CASE fOr

INVESTMENT


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The preceding section highl ighted reasons why

individuals and societies place value or importance

on psychological health and well-being, why these

values do not necessarily lead to action, and why

governments have a responsibility to ensure that

they do. I these reasons are accepted and

governments and other key stakeholders are

prepared to act, policy dialogue within countries

can move on rom the question why? to what?and how? (or indeed, how much?).

What is the current stateof investment?

Many low- and middle-income countries

currently allocate less than 2% or even 1%

o the health budget to the treatment and

prevention o mental disorders (see Figure 1) (15).

Th is is not remotely propor tionate to the burden

they cause, and appears to place a very low

value on the psychological or emotional well-

being o populations. The situation is particularly

bleak in low-income countries where on average

there is only one psychiatrist or every two million

inhabitants (compared to one to every 12 000

inhabitants in high-income countries). Most o

the unds that are made available bygovernments are speciically directed to the

operational costs o specialized but increasingly

outdated mental hospitals (that are commonly

associated with isolation, human rights violations

and poor outcomes) (15). This inevitably curbs

the development o more equitable and cost-

eective community-based services.

%o

ftotal

healthspendingonmenthalhea

lth 6%

5%

4%

3%

2%

1%

0

Low-income

countries

0.5 %

Lower middle-

income countries

1.9 %

Upper middle-

income countries

2.4 %

High-income

countries

5.1 %

Igure 1. mental health spendIng as a proportIon o

total he alth spendIng (15)


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What is the basis forreneWed investment inmental health systems?

Decisions on investment or priorities in public

health are usually based on the ollowing criteria:

human rIghts protectIon:

This criterion relates to the extent to whichinvestment and action directly contribute to

upholding human rights or tackling human rights

violations or inringements.

publIc health and economIc burden:

Here the ocus is the burden at tributable to

dierent disorders, both now and in the uture. In

other words, how serious are the health and

economic consequences o not investing in mental

health?

cost and cost-eectIveness:

Since resources or health are fnite or scarce, it is

important to assess the costs as well as social and

economic outcomes associated with an

investment o societal resources in health

technologies or policies. Thus, the question here is

how efcient is it to invest in mental health

services and interventions?

equItable access and Ina ncIal

protectIon:

This criterion relates to the extent to which invest-

ment improves equitable access and airness in

fnancial contribution to essential services. In other

words, to what extent does the investment move

the population closer to universal health coverage?

human rights protection

Individuals with mental health problems (together

with their amilies) are subject to stigma,

discrimination and victimization, and are vulnerable

to violation o their rights (16). For example,

individuals may encounter restrictions in the

exercise o their political and civ il rights, including

their right to participate in public aairs anddecision-making processes on issues that aect

them. Unortunately, much o this discrimination

goes unreported, making it virtually impossible to

accurately assess the size o the problem. In

conict situations or disasters, persons with

mental health problems are at particular risk o

having their rights abused (17).

Legislation that protects vulnerable citizens reects

a society that respects and cares or its people.

Legislation that places policies and plans in the

context o internationally accepted human rights

standards and good practices can be an eective

tool or promoting access to mental health care as

well as or promoting and protecting the rights o

persons with mental disorders. However, nearly

two-thirds o countries either have no mental

health legislation or have legislation that is over 10

years old (15). A lot o outdated mental healthlegislation actually violates rather than protects the

rights o people with mental disorders because it

is geared towards saeguarding members o the

public rom dangerous patients (with the eect o

isolating them rather than promoting their rights as

people and citizens). Other legislation allows

persons with mental disorders to be placed in

long-term custodial care and to be given

systematic treatment without inormed consent,

thus seriously impinging on their right to liberty

and security o person and their right to exercise

legal capacity.


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The inringement o basic rights and entit lements

represents the strongest single reason or

appropriate corrective action by governments and

civil society (including engagement and

empowerment o organizations o people with

mental disorders as well as amilies and carers). In

particular, rigorous and ongoing procedural

saeguards need to be in place to protect against

the overuse and abuse o involuntary admissionand treatment. To this end, the WHO QualityRights

tool kit sets key human rights and quality standards

that need to be met in all inpatient and outpatient

mental health and social care acili ties (18).

public health and

economic burden

Mental, neurological and substance use disorders

are major contributors to morbidity and premature

mortality throughout the world. Over 10% o the

global burden o disease, measured in terms o

years o healthy lie lost, can be at tributed to these

disorders (2); when only years lived with disability

are counted, the proportion more than doubles to

25% o the global burden (1). Not only do these

conditions result in signifcant levels o disability or

impaired unctioning but they are highly prevalent.For instance, more than 650 million people

worldwide are estimated to meet diagnostic

criteria or common mental disorders such as

depression and anxiety (1). Almost three quarters

o this burden is in low- and middle-income

countries.

The onset or presence o a mental disorder also

increases the risk o disability and premature

mortality rom other diseases including

cardiovascular disease, diabetes, HIV/AIDS and

other chronic conditions (11) due to neglect o

the persons physical health (by themselves,

amilies or care providers), elevated rates o

psychoactive substance use, diminished physical

activity, an unhealthy diet and, in many cases, the

side-eects o medication. Along with suicide,

these chronic diseases produce a level o

premature mortality ar in excess o that o the

general population; even in the relatively auent

context o Nordic countries, this mortality gap has

been estimated at 20 years or men and 15 years

or women (19).

Despite (and in no small part due to) low

government health expenditures on mental health,

the overall economic costs o mental disorders are

also very high. At the household level, these costs

come most directly in the orm o reduced

earnings plus additional and sometimes

catastrophic out-o-pocket expenditure on

health serv ices (oten leading to cuts in spending

and investment in other areas or giving up

household assets and savings). An analysis or

India, or instance, ound that hal o the out-o

pocket expenditures made by households or

psychiatric disorders came rom loans and a

urther 40% rom household income or savings

(20). The potentially catastrophic impact o private

out-o-pocket payments or health services on the

income and savings o households that include a

person with mental illness has rarely been

assessed. However, one study in the state o Goain India ound that 15% o women with a common

mental disorder spent more than 10% o household

income on health-related expenditures (21).

In terms o the impact on the national economy,

mental disorders are associated with high rates o

unemployment and also under-perormance while

at work. These both limit labour participation and

output (a critical component o economic growth).

A recent study by the World Economic Forum

estimated that the cumulative global impact o

mental disorders in terms o lost economic output

will amount to US$ 16 trillion over the next 20

years, equivalent to more than 1% o global gross

domestic product (GDP) over this period (3).


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Studies rom specifc countries provide similarly

sobering fndings: health care costs and lost

earnings amount to at least US$ 50 billion in

Canada and US$ 75 billion in the United Kingdom

(both equivalent to more than 2.5% o national GDP)

(22, 23). For childhood mental health problems

alone, the lietime costs to the USA are expected to

exceed US$ 2 trillion as a result o diminished

educational achievement and earnings (24).

cost and cost-effectiveness

The magnitude o the current and projected

burden o mental, neurological and substance-

use disorders might be considered a sufcient

reason alone or investment, but only i that

investment can be channelled towards eective

and aordable solutions. The knowledge base

on what to do about the escalating burden o

mental disorders has improved substantially

over the past decade, with a growing body o

evidence demonstrating both the efcacy and

cost-eectiveness o key interventions or priority

mental disorders in countries at dierent levels

o economic development.

In order to choose specifc evidence-based

interventions or priority disorders that can be

readily scaled up and oer good value or money,

inormation is required on cost-eectiveness,

aordability and easibility (see Box 1 or

defnitions o these terms).

This inormation is available at the global level i.e.

or countries o dierent income levels or alcoholuse (as a risk actor or disease), epilepsy,

depression and psychosis (see Appendix 3 or

details). From these interventions, a subset can be

identifed that is not only highly cost-eective but

also easible, aordable and appropr iate or

implementation within the constraints o the local

health system:

epIlepsy:

Diagnosis and treatment o epilepsy with frst-line

antiepileptic drugs is one o the most cost-

eective interventions or noncommunicable

diseases. The treatment is very aordable and can

easibly be undertaken at the level o primary care.

cost-eectIveness summarizes the efciency with which an intervention produces health

outcomes. A very cost-eective intervention can be defned as one that generates an extra

year o healthy lie or a cost that alls below the average annual income per person.

aordabIl It y is defned in terms o the actual cost o implementing interventions, with US$

0.50 per capita used as a threshold or considering an intervention to be very aordable/low-

cost, and US$ 1 or quite aordable/low-cost.

easIbIlItyis defned by: (i) reach (capacity o the health system to deliver an intervention to the

target population); (ii) technical complexity (technologies needed or an intervention); (iii) capital

intensity (amount o capital required); and (iv) acceptability (including airness and human rights).

box 1. crIterIa used to IdentI y mental health Investment prIorItIes


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depressIon:

Depression is among the leading causes o

disability in the world. The key interventions

are treatment with (generically produced) anti-

depressant drugs and brie psychotherapy.

Economic analysis has indicated that treating

depression in primary care is easible, relatively

aordable (less than US$ 1) and very cost-eective.

psychosIs:

Treating people with psychosis with older

antipsychotic drugs plus psychosocial support is a

quite cost-eective public-health intervention. It is

easible to implement it in primary care. However,

some reerral support is required, making it less

aordable. Nevertheless, human rights

considerations add to the need to make these

interventions available.

harmul alcohol use:

Harmul use o alcohol is a leading risk actor or

disease globally. It contributes not only to

substance use, mental disorders and injuries but

also to noncommunicable conditions such as liver

cirrhosis, certain cancers and cardiovascular

diseases. Taxation o alcoholic beverages and

restriction o their availability and marketing are

among the most cost-eective, aordable andtechnically easible strategies to implement.

A range o eective measures also exists or

prevention o suicide, prevention and treatment o

mental disorders in children, prevention and

treatment o dementia, and treatment o substance

use disorders (see Appendix 4 or details). More

inormation is urgently needed about the expected

costs and impacts, particularly in low- and middle-

income countries. In the United Kingdom,

evidence has already been assembled on the

impact and return on investment or a variety o

mental health promotion and prevention strategies.

From a societal perspective, the pay-o or certain

interventions including early intervention or

psychosis, suicide prevention, and learning

programmes or conduct disorder exceeds a

ratio o 10 (i.e. or every 1 spent, there is more

than 10 o beneft) (25).

What about the resources that are needed to

implement an integrated package o cost-eective

care and prevention? A recent estimate o US$34 per head o population has been derived or

the scaled-up delivery o a defned package in two

geographical contexts (sub-Saharan Arica and

South Asia), based on a comparative cost-

eectiveness analysis o 44 individual or combined

interventions (26). The package comprised the

treatment o epilepsy (with older frst-line

antiepileptic drugs), depression (with generic

antidepressant drugs and psychosocial treatment),

bipolar disorder (with the mood-stabilizer drug

lithium), schizophrenia (with neuroleptic

antipsychotic drugs and psychosocial treatment),

and heavy alcohol use (via increased taxation and

its enorcement, reduced access and, in sub-

Saharan Arica, advertising bans and brie advice

to heavy drinkers in primary care).

The impact o such an investment is reected above

all in improved health an estimated 5001000healthy years o lie or every million dollars spent.

Placing even a very modest value on a healthy year

o lie such as the average income per person

makes the return on investment highly avourable.

Over and above the health gains, such an investment

also brings other non-health benefts, most notably

in terms o restored capacity to work (productivity

gains) and reduced welare support payments.


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20


equitable access andfinancial protection(universal healthcoverage)

An exercise carr ied out by the United States

National Institute o Mental Health to identiy a

number o grand challenges in global mental

health ound that improved treatment and accessto care was the single most pressing concern (27).

Indeed, an overarching fnancing goal o many

health systems currently undergoing transition is

the pursuit o universal health coverage, which can

be defned in terms o access to key promotive,

preventive, curative and rehabilitative health

interventions or all at an aordable cost, thereby

achieving equity in access (28). The concept o

universal health coverage can be broken down into

three dimensions (see Figure 2):

depth

(The range o services or interventions available

to members o the pool o insured persons):

This can be appropriately assessed by consider ing

the cost and cost-eectiveness o services and

interventions (as discussed above).

breadth

(The proportion o the population covered by

some orm o fnancial protection):

It is well established that in low- and middle-

income countries there is a sizeable gap in mental

health service and fnancial coverage. For severe

mental disorders, the treatment gap is at least

70% (4) and or common mental disorders it is

even higher.

heIght

(The proportion o total costs covered by

prepayment):

Private out-o-pocket spending represents a substantial

proportion o total mental health expenditure in low- and

middle-income countries, particularly when the largest

element (mental hospital spending) is excluded (29).

Direct out-o-pocket spending is an unair and

regressive way o paying or health care because it

penalizes those least able to aord care (28).

In short, current coverage o essential mental health

care can be characterized as inadequate, both in

terms o access or those in need and in terms o

fnancial protection or beneft inclusion. Accordingly,

eorts to scale up community-based public mental

health services can be expected to contribute

strongly to the objective o greater equality in accessbecause more people in need will be served and with

less reliance on direct out-o-pocket spending.


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21


In practical terms, there are several critical issues

that need to be addressed in order to move closer

to the goal o universal coverage in mental health.These are:

InancIng/Insurance

A defned set o mental health conditions and

interventions should be explicitly recognized and

included in the essential list or package o health

benefts oered to all citizens by governments,

whether as part o the national tax-based health

service or under the provisions o social or private

insurance schemes (see Box 2 or an example

rom Chile).

servIce delIvery

Specialized secondary care should be available or

reerral cases and mental health care should beintegrated into primary health care, maternal and

reproductive health care, internal medicine and

paediatrics, and emergency medicine, so that the

majority o persons with mental health needs can

enjoy local access to treatment and care.

human resources

Clinical tasks should be shared with nonspecialists

so that the provision o essential care and support

is not thwarted by the absence o specialist mental

health providers.

Igure 2. pathways to unIversal health coverage (28)

Direct costs:

proportion of the

costs covered

Services:

which services are

covered?Population: who is covered?


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22


There is a strong international consensus that the

shortage o fnancial and human resources or

mental health requires a policy to integrate mental

health care into general health care. Such

integration provides opportunities or reducing the

stigma o mental health problems, which in itsel is

a major barrier to accessing care. A recent report

presents the justifcation or, and advantages o,

providing mental health services in primary care,

and describes how a range o health systems have

successully undertaken this transormation (31).

Because o the current shortage o specialist

mental health personnel a well-established

barrier to scaling up mental health services a key

proposal to improve access to treatment is by

task-sharing with nonspecialist health workers.

There is an emerging evidence base that

demonstrates how task-sharing with nonspecialist

health workers can improve access to care. A

study carried out or KwaZulu-Natal province in

South Arica, or example, concluded that a task-

sharing approach to the integration o mental

health into primary health care can substantially

reduce the number o health-care providers who

would otherwise be needed to provide this care.

Furthermore, the study ound that the cost o

additional community-based workers and a mental

health counsellor at primary level can be oset by

a reduction in the number o other specialist and

nonspecialist heal th personnel (32).

Adequate training, supervision and suppor t are o

course paramount to the success o such an

approach. This means that sufcient fnancial or

other incentives need to be put in place to ensure

sustainability o the approach. In addition,treatment guidance and training materials need to

be geared towards nonspecialists; this has been

achieved with the development and roll-out o

WHOsmhGAP Intervention Guide (5).

conclusion

By putting together an overall picture o these

dierent criteria, as shown in Box 3, one sees a

compelling case or urgent action and investment.

As part o a broader process o health reorm, in 2005 the Chilean parliament passed the

Regime o Explicit Guarantees in Health Law which provides universal coverage or all citizens

with regard to a package o medical benefts consisting o a prioritized list o diagnoses and

treatments or 56 health conditions. This list o conditions (which is still growing) includes

depression, alcohol/drug dependence and schizophrenia. The regime is enorceable by law andincludes a set o guarantees concerning access, quality and fnancial protection such as

maximum waiting times, co-payments, and the mandatory oer ing o the benefts package by

both private and public providers (30).

box 2. InclusIon o mental dIsorders In chIles

unIversal health-care plan


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23


human rIghts protectIon

Individuals with mental health problems (together with their amilies) are commonly

subjected to stigma, discrimination and victimization.

Well-ormulated and properly enorced policies and laws that are oriented to human rights

prevent abuse and protect rights.

publIc health and economIc burden

Globally, more than 25% o all years lived with disability and over 10% o the total burden o

disease is attributable to mental, neurological and substance use disorders.

Let unaddressed, lost economic output due to these disorders will increase signifcantly romthe already enormous levels.

cost and cost-eectIveness

Feasible, aordable and cost-eective measures are available or preventing and treating

mental, neurological and substance use disorders.

An integrated package o cost-eective care and prevention can be delivered in community-

based settings o low- and middle-income countries or US$ 34 per capita.

equItable access and InancIal protectIon

Most persons with mental ill-health do not have adequate access to the essential mental

health care they need; those who do use the services end up paying much o the bill.

Integration o mental health care into publicly-unded primary care and task-sharing with non-

specialist health-care providers are appropriate and viable strategies or enhancing access.

box 3. summary o key arguments and evIdence or

dIerent Investment crIterIa


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4.SuMMAry Of kEy

fINdINGS


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25


This report set out to descr ibe the place o mental

health as a valued source o human capital or well-

being in society, and to assess its suitability as a

target or greater investment and action. The main

points can be summarized as ollows:

mental health and

social values

From a range o dierent analytical perspectives,

there are sound arguments that support greater

attention to and investment in mental health,

including the protection o human rights,

improved health and well-being, reduced social

inequalities, and enhanced economic

productivity and eiciency.

Negative cultural attitudes towards mental

illness persist and governments tend to

emphasize the creation or retention o wealth

rather than the promotion o societal well-

being. This situation can be countered by

presenting a stronger and more uniied voice

and insisting that the health and human r ights

o persons with mental health problems can

and should be appropriately protected.

As the ultimate guardians o population hea lth,

governments in partnership with other key

stakeholders have a lead role to play in the

enactment o national mental health action

plans, including: the provision o better

inormation, awareness and education about

mental health and illness; improved services;

and enhanced legal, social and inancial

protection or persons, amilies or communities

adversely aected by mental disorders.

mental health actionand innovation

Judged against core criteria or priorities in

health (i.e. human rights, public health,

economic eiciency and social equity) there is

a compelling evidence-based case or investing

in mental health. For each year o inaction and

underinvestment, the health, social andeconomic burden will continue to rise. Doing

nothing is thereore not a viable option.

Mental health can be considered a ocus o

renewed investment not just in terms o human

development and dignity but also in terms o

social and economic development.


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26

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or 1160 sequelae o 289 diseases and injuries

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2. Murray CJL et al. Disability-adjusted lie years

(DALYs) or 291 diseases and injuries in 21

regions, 19902010: a systematic analysis orthe Global Burden o Disease Study 2010.

Lancet, 2012, 380:21972223.

3. Bloom DE et al. The global economic burden o

noncommunicable diseases.

Geneva, World Economic Forum, 2011.

4. Lora A et al. Service availability and utilization

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a survey in 50 low- and middle-income

countries. Bulletin o the World Health

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neurological and substance use disorders in

non-special ized health settings. Geneva, World

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6. Comprehensive Mental Health Action Plan20132020. Geneva, World Health Organization,

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7. Investing in mental health. Geneva, World Health

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8. Promoting mental health: concepts, emerging

evidence, practice. Geneva, World Health

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9. Schwartz SH. Basic human values: theory,

measurement, and applications. Revue ranaise

de sociologie, 2006, 47:249288.

10. Nussbaum MC. Women and human

development: the capabilities approach.

Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000.

11. Helliwell J, Layard R, Sachs J. World happiness

report. New York, NY, The Earth Institute,

Columbia University, 2012.

12. Beeharry G et al. Outlining the scope or publicsector involvement in mental health. (HNP

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Bank, 2002.

13. Lund C et al. Poverty and mental disorders:

breaking the cycle in low- and middle-income

countries. Lancet, 2011, 378:15021514.

14. Tomlinson M, Lund C. Why does mental health

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o the Shiman and Smith Framework. PLoS

Medicine, 2012, 9:e1001178.

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social development. Lancet, 2001,

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18.WHO QualityRights tool kit. Geneva, World


19. Wahlbeck K et al. Outcomes o Nordic mental

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mental disorders. British Journal o Psychiatry,

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20. Mahal A, Karan A, Engelgau M. The economic

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The World Bank, 2010.

21. Patel V et al. Prioritizing health problems in

women in developing countries: comparing the

fnancial burden o reproductive tract inections,

anaemia and depressive disorders in acommunity survey in India. Tropical Medicine

and International Health, 2007, 12:130-139.

22. Lim KL et al. A new population-based measure

o the economic burden o mental illness in

Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 2008,

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23. McCrone P et al. Paying the price: the cost o

mental health care in England to 2026. London,

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24. Smith JP, Smith GC. Long-term economic costs

o psychological problems during childhood.

Social Science and Medicine, 2010, 71:110115.

25. Knapp MRJ, McDaid D, Parsonage M, eds.

Mental health promotion and mental illness

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mathematical modelling study. British Medical

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27. Collins PY et al. Grand challenges in global

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global perspective. Geneva and Bangkok, WorldHealth Organization and World Organization o

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appendix 1.six perspectives on thevalue base for individualor collective decision-making

1. Public health perspective: The defning goal

rom this perspective is to protect, improve andoptimize individual and population health,

where to use WHOs defnition health is

defned as a state o complete physical, mental

and social well-being and not merely the

absence o disease or infrmity. Historically, the

main ocus rom this perspective was

premature mortality (and the inectious

diseases that contribute most to it); as a

consequence o increased/longer survival, as

well as greater exposure to unhealthy liestyles,

diseases o a chronic, disabling and

noncommunicable nature are increasing,

thereby prompting a major change in terms o

public health priorities and policies.

2. (Micro)economic welare perspective:

Welare economic theory posits that, subject

to constraints such as income and time,

individuals or populations seek to maximizeutility (a term used to describe pleasure or

economic welare), which they do by

consuming goods and services and by

spending time with amily and riends or in

other orms o leisure. Health contributes to

individual utility or social welare, not only

because people preer to be more healthy

rather than less healthy but also because

being healthy enables them to better enjoy

consumption or leisure activities. Thus health

has an intrinsic value but also supports the

capability o an individual or community to

undertake desired activities or unctions.

3. (Macro)economic growth perspective: The

overarching concern or society rom this

perspective is to improve the standard o living

in a country by increasing economic output

through more efcient production. Ill-health can

aect economic growth through its negative

impact on the supply (and quality) o human

capital or labour. Countries devote an

increasing share o their national product orincome to health care (which could otherwise

be put to potentially more productive use).

Economic growth is typically measured with

reerence to a countrys gross domestic

product (GDP). However, GDP is only a par tial

measure o economic welare (and was not

designed to measure this broader concept),

since it does not include consumption that is

not marketed, or the value o leisure or the

value o health itsel. There has been recent

interest in developing alternative measures to

GDP or income or assessing a countrys

success or progress, including the concept

(and various indices) o gross national

happiness.

4. Equity perspective: In contrast to the notion o

maximizing societa l utility, the ethical

perspective derives rom concerns overairness in equality o oppor tunity (i.e. each

person should be able to achieve a air share o

the opportunities available in society). Such

entitlements are enshrined in international

human rights instruments such as the Universal

Declaration o Human Rights, which declares

that all human beings are born ree and equal in

dignity and rights (including the right to health).

Individuals with health problems who are

prevented rom accessing appropriate care and

support as a result o poverty or

discrimination, or instance experience a

violation o the right to health.


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5. Sociocultural perspective: This perspective

reveals how belies, customs and social

attitudes shape the way societies perceive,

organize and urther themselves (through, or

instance, sociocultural norms governing

kinship, reciprocity and spirituality). In many

cultures, entrenched belies about the causes

o mental illness (e.g. evil spirits or sorcery)

engender negative attitudes and practicestowards persons with mental illnesses.

6. Political perspective: The role o government is

to ormulate and implement state policies. At

least in democratic or republican orms o

government, policies are usually considered to

be made in the national interest, to address

issues where private markets have ailed, and

to reect the demands or wishes o the

electorate (thereby echoing prevailing social

attitudes and values). How decisions actually

get made varies considerably, however. State

representatives are subjected to lobbying by

special interest/advocacy groups which exert

inuence on fnal public policies or choices.

appendix 2.

market failures Withrespect to mental healthand health care

1. Inormation ailures: Many people with mental

illness lack insight into, or even recognition o,

their health condition, needs or rights. This results

in a lower level o demand or help-seeking than

the person may need. The result is an under-

supply o services that only collective action can

redress. The stigma attached to a mental disorder

another orm o inormation ailure produces a

urther impediment to the demand or services.

The stigma that surrounds mental ill-health also

has a negative inuence on the political

processes that determine priority-setting and

resource allocation in health.

2. Risk and uncertainty: There are a number o

concerns regarding paying or or insuring against

mental illness, particularly in the case o chronic

conditions such as schizophrenia or bipolar

aective disorder. First, uninsured persons or

households ace potentially ruinous costs

associated with health care expenses and lack o

income rom paid work. Second, persons who

seek to mitigate this risk by buying private healthinsurance may fnd themselves excluded or

restricted rom receiving the services they need

(because insurance companies remove or limit

entitlements). Other relevant services such as

social care, special educational needs or housing

may also not be covered by insurance or may

be subject to separate charges.

3. Negative spill-over eects: Persons with mental,

neurological or substance use disorders are oten

the victims o abuse and violence by others, but

can also pose a risk o violence or harm to others

(e.g. by a person suering a psychotic episode or

behaving aggressively when under the inuence

o alcohol or illicit drugs). Such spill-over eects or

externalized costs justiy some orm o public

intervention. Spill-over eects oten extend

beyond the immediate victims o violence, abuse

or crime to contact with criminal justice services.In the case o drug-use disorders, the harm may

be to other peoples health (e.g. HIV transmission

via use o shared needles). Mental disorders can

also have adverse impacts on physical health (e.g.

the impact o perinatal depression on inant

development). Furthermore, mental illness aects

amily members and riends who oten provide

inormal care and support as a complement to, or

replacement or, ormal provision o health or

social care. Inormal caregivers may derive

satisaction rom doing this but many also

experience welare losses themselves in the orm

o exhaustion, stress and reduced opportunities

or work or leisure activities.


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appendix 3.identifying interventions that are cost-effective,affordable and feasible

h

ii

Ii c-i

(cost per healthy year

of life gained)a

aii

(cost per capita)a

iii

(logistical or other

constraints)

Epilepsy t i (f-i)

iii

+++ +++ i i

i

Depression t i (i)

i

i

i

+++ ++ i i

i

Harmul

alcohol use

ri i

e ii

ri

+++ +++ hi i

Enorce drink-driving laws

(breath-testing)

Oer counselling to drinkers

++ ++ Feasible in

primary care

Psychosis Treat cases with (older)

antipsychotic drugs

plus psychosocial support

++ + Feasible in primary

care; some reerral

needed

key: c-i:

+++ (very cost-eective; cost per healthy year o lie gained < average income per person).

++ (quite cost-eective; cost per healthy year o lie gained < 3 times average income per person).

+ (less cost-eective; cost per healthy year o lie gained > 3 times average income per person).

aii :

+++ (very aordable; implementation cost < US$ 0.50 per person).

++ (quite aordable; implementation cost < US$ 1 per person).

+ (less aordable; implementation cost > US$ 1 per person).

Notes: a Source o data: Chisholm and Saxena, 2012 (25).


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epIlepsy

Diagnosis and treatment o epilepsy with frst-line

antiepileptic drugs is one o the most cost-eective interventions or noncommunicable

diseases. The treatment is very aordable and is

easible in primary care.

depressIon

Depression is currently one o the leading causes

o disability in the world. The key interventions are

treatment with (generic) antidepressant drugs and

brie psychotherapy. Economic analysis has

indicated that treating depression in primary care

is easible, relatively aordable (less than US$ 1

per person) and very cost-eective.

psychosIs

Treating persons with psychosis with older

antipsychotic drugs plus provision o psychosocial

support is a quite cost-eective public-health

intervention. It is easible to implement in primary

care but some reerral suppor t is required, makingit less a ordable. However, human rights

considerations add to the imperative need to make

these interventions available.

harmul alcohol use

(as a rIsk actor or dIsease )

Harmul use o alcohol is a leading risk actor or

disease globally, contributing not only to substance

use and mental disorders but also to injuries and

noncommunicable conditions such as liver cirrhosis,

certain cancers and cardiovascular diseases.

Taxation o alcoholic beverages and restriction o

their availability and marketing are among the most

cost-eective, aordable and technically easible

strategies that can be implemented.

appendix 4.summary of evidence ofeffectiveness for mhgappriority conditions

Suicide is responsible or 1.3% o the global burden

o disease. Around 844 000 deaths occur globally

because o suicide. Eective interventions or

prevention o suicide include restriction o access to

means such as frearms and pesticides, reduction

o the harmul use o alcohol as described above,

and treatment o depression and substance use

disorders. However the cost-eectiveness o these

interventions is not yet established globally.

The evidence-based and eective interventions or

substance use disorders are: brie intervention

or alcoholuse disorders, treatment o opioid

dependence with opioid agonist maintenance

treatment, and reduction o the harmul use o

alcohol as described above. Translating fndings on

interventions or substance use disorders in

developed countries into disease-control priorities

or developing countries presents major challenges

as countries dier in their scale o substance use

and in the resulting disease burden. For drug-use

disorders, some inormation is available on the

cost-eectiveness o some o these interventions in

specifc settings or countries but not globally. In

addition, cultural belies and attitudes inuence

societal responses to drug use and dependence.

Many potential interventions exist or the preventionodevelopmental disorders in children but

evidence on cost-eectiveness, aordability and

easibility is available or only a ew interventions

and rom only some settings. Iodine defciency

disorders (IDD) are an important cause o

developmental disorders in children and it is well-

recognized that the most eective, cost-eective

and sustainable way to achieve the virtual

elimination o IDD is through universal salt

iodization. Folic acid ortifcation o the ood supply

or prevention o neural tube deects was ound to

be highly cost-eective in the USA. In low-income

countries, however, high capital and running costs

may compromise cost-eectiveness, at least in the

short run. Evidence or cost-eectiveness is


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available also or rubella, haemophilus inuenza and

measles vaccines and the removal o lead rom paint

and uel. Prenatal screening and selective

pregnancy termination to prevent Down Syndrome

are highly cost-eective under some conditions but

raise ethical, social and cultural concerns that may

preclude their applicability in some low- and middle-

income countries. Moreover, screening is not only

expensive but also has some negative healthoutcomes. Neonatal screening and treatment or

congenital hypothyroidism is highly cost-eective in

developed countries, where it provides a low-cost

strategy or preventing intellectual disability.

No frm evidence indicates that any orm o

population-based intervention can prevent

Alzheimers disease or that the progression

o cognitive decline in old age can be halted or

reduced. However, there is some evidence available

on eective interventions or caregivers. Training

amily caregivers in behavioural management

techniques has been shown to reduce the level o

agitation and anxiety in people with dementia.

Interventions that have specifcally targeted stress

and depression among caregivers have shown

positive results but the challenge is to develop

culturally-appropriate interventions that can be

delivered within existing resources in low- andmiddle-income countries. Treating underlying risk

actors or cardiovascular disease can help prevent

uture cerebrovascular disease that could lead to

vascular dementia. More evidence and research is

required to assess the cost-eectiveness,

aordability and easibility o these interventions.


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For more information,

please contact:

Department of Mental Health

and Substance AbuseWorld Health Organization

Avenue Appia 20

CH-1211 Geneva 27

Switzerland

www.who.int/mental_health/en/

Mental health and well-being are fundamental to our collective

and individual ability as humans to think, emote, interact

with each other, earn a living and enjoy life. Yet currently the

formation of individual and collective mental capital especiallyin the earlier stages of life is being held back by a range

of avoidable risks to mental health, while individuals with

mental health problems are shunned, discriminated against

and denied basic rights, including access to essential care.

In this report, potential reasons for this apparent contradiction

between cherished human values and observed social actions

are explored with a view to better formulating concrete steps

that governments and other stakeholders can take to reshape

social attitudes and public policy around mental health.

ISBN 978 92 4 156461 8

Investigar en Salud Mental

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