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589Palabra Clave - ISSN: 0122-8285 - Vol.17 No. 3 - Septiembre de 2014. 589-618

The Image of Immigrationin Fiction Broadcast onPrime-time Television in Spain1

Juan Jos Igartua2

Isabel M. Barrios3

Flix Ortega4

Francisco J. Frutos5

Recibido: 2013-11-13 Aprobado por pares: 2014-01-10Envo a pares: 2013-12-01 Aceptado: 2014-01-27

DOI: 10.5294/pacla.2014.17.3.2

Para citar este artculo / To reference this article / Para citar este artigoIgartua, J., Barrios, I. M., Ortega, F., & Frutos, F. J. Septiembre de 2014. The Image ofImmigration in Fiction Broadcast on Prime-time Television in Spain. Palabra Clave 17 (3),

589-618. DOI: 10.5294/pacla.2014.17.3.2

AbstractTe aricle describes he resuls o a conen analysis o he image o im-migrans porrayed in prime- ime elevision ficion in Spain, based on heculivaion heory and research on ehnic minoriies in he media. Te daaindicaes immigran characers clearly are underrepresened and end o bedepiced in a negaive way ha reinorces sereoypes abou immigrans

(e.g., perorming criminal aciviies). Te resuls are discussed in relaiono he role elevision ficion could play in reducing prejudice hrough me-diaed inergroup conac (Park, 2012).

1 Tis sudy was carried ou hanks o financing provided by he Programa de Apoyo a Proyecos de Invesigacin dela Consejera de Educacin de la Juna de Casilla y Len (esearch Projec Suppor Program o he Casile & Leonegional Minisry o Educaion ) (eerence No. SA006A10-1).

2 Universidad de Salamanca, Espaa. [email protected]

3 Universidad de Salamanca, Espaa. [email protected] Universidad de Salamanca, Espaa. [email protected]

5 Universidad de Salamanca, Espaa. [email protected]

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590 The Image of Immigration in Fiction Broadcast on Prime-time Television in Spain - Juan Jos Igartua and others.

KeywordsMass communicaion, communicaion impac, inerculural communica-ion (Source: UNESCO Tesaurus).

La imagen de la inmigracin enla ficcin transmitida en horarioestelar en la televisin espaola

Resumen

El arculo describe los resulados de una invesigacin de anlisis de cone-nido sobre la imagen de los inmigranes en los programas de ficcin emii-dos en el horario de prime ime de elevisin en Espaa, basado en la eorade culivo y la invesigacin sobre las minoras nicas en los medios de co-municacin. Los daos permien concluir que exise una inra-represena-cin de los personajes inmigranes, y ambin se observa que sos iendena ser represenadosde manera negaiva reorzando los esereoipos sobrelos inmigranes. Se discuen los resulados en relacin con el papel que po-

dra desempear la ficcin elevisiva en la reduccin de los prejuicios a ra-vs del conaco mediado inergrupal (Park, 2012).

Palabras claveComunicacin masiva, el impaco de la comunicacin, comunicacin in-erculural (Fuene: esauro de la Unesco).

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A imagem da imigrao na ficotransmitida no horrio nobre nateleviso espanhola

ResumoEse arigo descreve os resulados de uma pesquisa de anlise de conedosobre a imagem dos imigranes nos programas de fico emiidos no hor-rio nobre na Espanha, baseado na eoria do culivo e da pesquisa sobre as

minorias nicas nos meios de comunicao. Os dados permiem concluirque exise uma inrarrepresenao dos personagens imigranes e ambmse observa que eses endem a ser represenados de maneira negaiva, o quereora os esereipos sobre os imigranes. Discuem-se os resulados so-bre o papel que poderia desempenhar a fico elevisiva na reduo do pre-conceio por meio do conao mediado inergrupal (Park, 2012).

Palavras-chave

Comunicao massiva, o impaco da comunicao, comunicao inercul-ural (Fone: esauro da Unesco).

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IntroductionTe role of he media is becoming more and more decisive in peoples lives. Te

wide range o devices hrough which one can be conneced o he mediameans he consumpion o media messages gradually akes up more imein our daily lives. Besides he insrumenal uses o media and communica-ion echnologies (especially he Inerne), he media have colonized a greapar o leisure ime. elevision is sill dominan: 88.6% o he populaion inSpain waches elevision every day, as opposed o he 43.4% who are Iner-ne users (AIMC, 2012). In addiion, apar rom consiuing a powerul in-dusry, elevision is a sysem ocused on soryelling (Shanahan & Morgan,

1999). In his conex o a high degree o elevision consumpion and re-garding he preeminence o riualisic usage (or one linked o he search orenerainmen), i is possible o wonder how he ficion shown on Spanishelevision represens immigraion. Immigraion is one o he mos impor-an and recen social phenomena o emerge in he counry and has becomeeven more conroversial in he presen scenario o an economic crisis. owi, Spains demography has changed during he las wo decades owing ohe arrival and setlemen o oreigners. Alhough he presen conex o eco-

nomic crisis mean a sligh drop in he growh of he immigran populaionduring he las wo years, curren demographic daa show11.7% of Spainspopulaion was foreign as of January 1, 2013 (5,520,133persons; Spains Na-ional Bureau of Saisics [INE], 2013), compared o 12.2% (5,730,667 per-sonas) repored for January 1, 2011 (INE, 2011).

However, he opening o borders o immigraion is no always ac-

companied by a welcoming hos populaion (Cea DAncona, 2004). Daarom surveys carried ou in Spain show an ambivalen sance owards im-migraion on he par o he indigenous populaion. Accordingly, when ho-se surveyed were asked: How would you say Spaniards, in general, reaimmigrans? he response mos seleced (rom he six suggesed) o des-cribe his reamen was invariably he expression: As i hey don rushem. Tis choice o response was seleced on mos survey occasions (rom1996 o 2010) by our ou o every en responders (Cea DAncona & Valles,

2011). Alhough here are many differen acors ha can explain his ati-ude o rejecion or ambivalence owards he immigran populaion, media

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coverage o he phenomenon has been shown o be a relevan one, since iends o highligh he alarm el abou he arrival o immigrans by ofeni-mes using expressions such as avalanche or invasion or linking he in-

crease in immigraion o criminaliy (Igarua, Muiz, Oero & de la Fuene,2007). However, alhough here are numerous sudies analyzing he ima-ge o immigraion in he news and he possible socio-cogniive effecs hacould explain atiudes o rejecion owards immigrans (Igarua & Cheng,2009; Igarua, Moral & Fernndez, 2011; Schemer, 2012), less research hasbeen done on a sysemaic analysis o he image o immigrans in elevisionficion conens mos likely o be wached by a grea many people; i.e. hose

broadcas during prime ime. Tis is especially relevan i we consider heac ha, or many people, heir only ineracion wih persons coming romoher counries and culures is he produc o vicarious or parasocial con-ac (Schiappa, Gregg & Hewes, 2005). In heir sudyEvolucin del racismoy la xenofobia en Espaa(Evoluion o acism and Xenophobia in Spain),Cea DAncona and Valles (2011) ound only 42% o he paricipans hadriendships wih immigrans.

Te ollowing aricle examines he image o immigrans porrayed inprime-ime elevision ficion hrough he main resuls o a conen analy-sis research sudy carried ou in 2011; specifically, an analysis o 1,788 cha-racers in 77 programs (V series and films) broadcas on he six naionalchannels ha capure mos o he audience in Spain (VE1,La 2,Anena3, Cuaro, ele 5, andLa Sexa). Tis paper also includes heoreical reflec-ion on he imporance o ficional characers in shaping atiudes and be-

lies as a possible explanaion or he spreading o sereoypes and prejudiceowards immigrans, as well as o accoun or he possible beneficial uses omediaed inergroup conac (Harwood, 2010; Mller, 2009; Park, 2012).

Television Fiction and Social Perception of RealityEmpirical research confirms ha elevision consumpion exers a meanin-gul effec on he percepion o our social world (Shanahan & Morgan,1999). Te firs atemp a sysemaizing empirical research on he repre-

senaion o social realiy in elevision ficion, and a analyzing is impacon audiences, was he Culural Indicaors Projec led by George Gerbner,

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which would give way o he culivaion heory. Te later ocuses on deer-mining he social consequences o messages broadcas hrough elevision,and on sudying he effecs o convenional elevision programming desig-

ned o enerain viewers (especially ficion shows wih a narraive sruc-ure, such as series and films). From his heoreical perspecive, elevisionis considered o be a culural insrumen ha socializes conduc and socialroles, and shapes basic assumpions abou social realiy (Morgan & Shana-han, 2010; Morgan, Shanahan & Signorelli, 2009).

Gerbner and his collaboraors have based heir work o he las ew

decades on hree kinds o daa: insiuional analysis o he media, analysiso he message sysem, and analysis o culivaion (Signorelli & Morgan,1996). Firs, insiuional analysiso he media examines how elevision mes-sages are produced and disribued. Trough message sysem analysis, Ger-bner and his eam regiser and analyze weekly samples o drama shows onprime-ime elevision and childrens programming on weekends. Tis isdone hrough conen analysis. Finally, culivaion analysis empirically de-ermines he influence o elevision conens on viewers percepion o he

world. esearch developed in ligh o he culivaion heory has been ba-sed mainly on represenaive surveys o he populaion, analyzing he rela-ionbeween elevision consumpion and social belies on various issues,so as o deermine wheher elevision has an effec on influencing viewersconcepions (Morgan e al., 2009).

Sudies developed o veriy he culivaion hypohesis have shown e-

levision consumpion is associaed wih a high percepion o risk and dan-ger, and wih mainaining an exaggeraed sense o misrus, vulnerabiliy andinsecuriy (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, Signorelli & Shanahan, 2002; Morgane al., 2009). Similarly, i brings abou he belie ha we live in a jus world(Appel, 2008), and reduces saisacion wih lie hrough he promoion omaerialism (Shrum, Lee, Burroughs & indfleisch, 2011). Furhermore,elevision consumpion influences he percepion o gender roles, proes-sions, environmenal maters, gender violence, disabiliy, atiudes owards

parner relaionships, and social percepion o ehnic minoriies (Morgan,2009; Morgan & Shanahan, 2010; Morgan e al,. 2009; Shanahan & Mor-

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gan, 1999). Even hough he esimaed effec is low (r= .10), i persiss un-der he conrol o muliple variables (Shanahan & Morgan, 1999). Hence,here has been a repeaed emphasis on he need o analyze or monior he

degree o diversiyexising in elevision programming, given he impac isconens could have on audiences and public opinion (Koeman, Peeers &DHaenes, 2007).

Mediated Intergroup Contact and PrejudiceGordon Allpor (1954) defined prejudice as an anipahy based upon aauly and inflexible generalizaion (p. 9). I is a negaive or rejecing ati-

ude owards an individual because he/she belongs o a specific group (Mo-lero, 2007). I has been possible o deermine ha one o he mos efficiensraegies o reduce prejudice is o allow or ineracion or direc conacbeween persons o he in- and ou-groups (Petigrew & ropp, 2006). Mo-reover, here are wo mechanisms ha have been observed as being able oreduce prejudice: inergroup conac lowers inergroup anxiey and increa-ses empahy owards he ou-group members (Petigrew &ropp, 2008).I also has been perceived ha conac can have a posiive effec even i i

is indirec, vicarious or merely symbolic; his is where he role o audiovi-sual ficion can be deerminan (Fujioka, 1999; Harwood, 2010; Mller,2009; Schiappa e al., 2005). Park (2012) defines mediaed inergroup con-ac as he parasocial ineracion produced beween an in-group specaor(e.g. naional or naive) and a ficional characer belonging o an ou-group(e.g. immigran or oreigner). Such inergroup conac also akes place whenan in-group viewer idenifies wih a ficional characer who belongs o he

viewers own group and becomes involved in riendly or avorable inerac-ion wih an ou-group characer. According o he exended conac hypohe-sis,knowledge ha an in-group member has a close relaionship wih anou-group member can lead o a more posiive inergroup atiude (Wrigh,Aron, McLaughlin-Volpe & opp, 1997, p. 74). In his sense, he paraso-cial conac hypohesis mainains ha exposure hrough he mass media(e.g. elevision or films) o examples o posiive and successul iner-culu-ral relaionships beween characers rom he in- and ou-groups consiues

an opporuniy orparasocialconac ha srenghens atiudes o accep-ance owards members o he ou-group. Conversely, he imagined iner-

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group conac hypohesis (Crisp & urner,2009) propounds ha even hemere ac o imagininga posiive encouner wih a person belonging o anou-group (in his case, an immigran) leads o less prejudice. In ac, here

is empirical evidence o suppor he hypohesis o exended and imaginedconac when applied o he field o media communicaions (Igarua, 2010;Mller, 2009; Oriz & Harwood, 2007; Paluck 2009). Considering all ohe above, i is possible o conclude ha indirec or media conac wih im-migran or oreign characers can lead o a reducion in prejudice owards aoreign or immigran group, provided he represenaion o immigran cha-racers and he ineracions hey esablish wih naional-naive characers

in ficional programs are posiive and non-sereoypical.

Ethnic Minorities and Immigrants in Television Fictiono dae, research has been done on he role o raming immigraion in henews media as one o he main acors behind he increase in xenophobia(Brader, Valenino & Suhay, 2008; Igarua, Moral & Fernndez, 2011; Sche-mer, 2012). However, he invisibiliy o immigraion or a disored (sereo-ypical) view porrayed in elevision ficion also can consiue an imporan

elemen ha may explain he ormaion, reinorcemen and inernalizaiono a prejudicial atiude owards immigrans. In his sense, a relevan lineo research is he one relaed o an analysis o he represenaion o ehnicand culural minoriy characers in elevision ficion (Arican-Americans,Lainos, Asian-Americans and Naive Americans in he Unied Saes, orimmigrans in he Spanish and European conexs) (Greenberg, Masro &Brand, 2002; Masro & Greenberg, 2000).

esearch analyzing he conen o ficional elevision programs con-cluded he presence o ehnic minoriy characers in he sample is low, ashey usually are under-represened (Masro, 2009a, 2009b). In addiion, ialso has been observed ha characers belonging o ehnic minoriies usua-lly occupy less relevan roles in he narraive srucure o such programs(Greenberg & Collete, 1997; Masro& Greenberg, 2000). Furhermo-re, when here are ehnic minoriy characers , hey usually are accompa-

nied by a disored or sereoypical view. Tus, i has been observed ha:(a) violence, crime and offenses are srongly associaed wih ehnic mino-

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riies (Enman & ojec, 2000); (b) Lainos appearing in US elevision fic-ion end o ocus heir conversaions on opics such as crime and violencemore requenly han characers o Caucasian origin (Masro & Greenberg,

2000); (c) here is more requen use o excessive or exreme orce by po-lice agens in elevision ficion owards youhs belonging o ehnic minori-ies, which migh sugges hese characers are vicimized more han hoseo Caucasian origin (Masro & obinson, 2000); and (d) Lainos are re-presened negaively in elevision ficion as lazy, perorming low-skilledoccupaions, no inelligen, and demonsraing difficulies o expressinghemselves or communicaing effecively (Harwood & Anderson, 2002;

Masro & Behm-Morawiz, 2005).

In Spain, empirical research on the depiction o immigration in te-levision fiction is practically nonexistent (Ruiz-Collantes, Ferrs, Obra-dors, Pujadas & Prez, 2006; Galn, 2006; Lacalle, 2008; Igartua, Barrios& Ortega 2012). Galn (2006) perormed her research through a con-tent analysis o the image o immigration in fiction, but tackled only twotelevision series. Lacalles work (2008) showed, in the assessed contents,

that: (a) immigrant characters are predominantly portrayed in an irregu-lar situation and with lower-skill qualifications; (b) there is high presen-ce o immigrants acting as criminals or being victims o violent action orcrime; and (c) the presence o qualified immigrants or those incarnatinga central role in the narrative is inrequent in all the series analyzed. Asor Ruiz-Collantes et al. (2006), they ound immigrant characters tendedto be portrayed as non-leading and were represented mainly in a negati-

ve light, by being associated with problems and victimization. Tey alsowere shown to be ineffective in achieving their sel-proposed goals, so theytended to simulate, manipulate or cheat. Te study by Igartua, Barrios &Ortega (2012), based on the cultivation theory, analyzed a wide repre-sentative sample o fictional characters (1,345 in 88 programs). Teir firstmain result indicated 7.8% o the characters in domestic shows were im-migrants-oreigners, as opposed to 92.2% who were national-native. SinceSpains oreign population in 2010 was about 12.2% o the total, it could

be said the immigrant-oreigner collective was under-represented in fic-tion broadcast on television. Furthermore, it was noted that immigrant-

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oreign characters, as opposed to nationals-natives, were portrayed witha lower level o education, less stable jobs, or perorming criminal acti-

vities, displaying more violent behavior and being on the receiving end

o more acts o violence (meaning they perormed their actions in moreconflictive environments). Moreover, they were defined as less efficientrom a cognitive point o view (less hard-working, intelligent or tolerant).Nonetheless, the definition o character was excessively restrictive inthat study: or a character to be part o the analysis, it had to appear in theprogram more than once and had to have several lines o dialogue withother characters (the work o Koeman et al., 2007 was adopted as a ree-

rence). Tis criterion may have excluded rom the analysis many charac-ters who perhaps came into view only once. Considering this and takinginto account the aorementioned research indicating that characters be-longing to ethnic or cultural minorities usually have less important ro-les in these narratives, the presence o immigrant-oreign characters mayhave been underestimated. Accordingly, a less restrictive definition wasused in the study presented herein. All characters who met one condition

were considered: or a character to be considered in the analysis, he/she

must have appeared visually throughout the show and must have at leastone line o dialogue with other characters. Considering existing researchon the image or portrayal o immigrants and ethnic minorities in televi-sion fiction, as well as studies analyzing the way immigration is ramed inthe news, the ollowing hypotheses were established.

H1. - Tere will be under-represenaion o immigran characers in prime-

ime elevision ficion.

H2. - Tere will be a greaer requency o anagonis or villain characers,secondary leading, and secondary non-leading characers (and ewermain characer roles) among immigran or oreign characers compa-red o naional or naive ones.

H3. - Immigran or oreign characers will have a lower level o educaion,

a lower socio-economic saus and will perorm lower-skilled occu-paions compared o naional-naive characers.

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H4. - Tere will be significan differences beween immigran-oreign cha-racers and naional-naive ones regarding displays o violen behavior,vicimizaion, healh problems, conversaion opics, and personaliy

rais.

Method

Sample of Contentswo ull weeks o prime-ime programming on he six naional channelsin Spain (VE1,La 2,Anena 3, Cuaro, ele 5andLa Sexa) were recor-

ded. According o heEsudio General de Medios(General Mass Media Sur-vey), heir combined share o elevision consumpion in Spain comes o64.2% (AIMC, 2012). wo composie week samples were randomly selec-ed in he year 2011, and 77 programs (30 films and 47 series) were ideni-fied. O hese, 62.4% had been produced in he Unied Saes o America,31.2% in Spain, 3.9% were o oher European origin, and 2.6% came roma differen counry. Characer selecion began once he ficional programswere idenified. For a characer o be par o he analysis, he/she had oappear visually hroughou he show and had o have one line o dialoguewih anoher (oher) characer(s); ha is, he characer had o be a alkingindividual(Koeman e al., 2007). Tus, 1,788 characers were idenified.

CodebookTe basis or he analysis o ficional shows and heir characers was a code-book creaed rom previous sudies (Harwood & Anderson, 2002; Igarua

e al., 2012; Koeman e al., 2007; Masro & Behm-Morawiz, 2005; Mas-ro & Greenberg, 2000; Poter & Warren, 1998).

Basic idenificaion daa. Te ollowing aspecs were evaluaed: daehe program aired, day o he week i aired, and he elevision channel iwas broadcas on.

Program informaion. Tis secion included he ollowing variables: a)

producion origin (0 = unidenified, 1 = domesic origin, Spain, 2 = UniedSaes, 3 = anoher European counry, 4 = Lain America, 5 = anoher cou-

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nry); b) program ype (1 = eaure-lengh film, 2 = series, serial, sicom,miniseries, or procedural series); c) program duraion (in minues, exclu-ding adverising); and, d) place where he main acion occurs (1 = Spain,

2 = anoher European counry, 3 = he Unied Saes, 4 = Lain America, 5= anoher counry).

Narraive aspecs of he characer. Te narraive role o he characer inhe program was evaluaed using he ollowing code: 1 = proagonis (heone who perorms he mos imporan acions in he sory; he dramaicsrucure revolves around his characer and his or her acions); 2 = anago-

nis or villain (he mos imporan characer in opposiion o he proago-nis); 3 = secondary proagoniss (hose closely relaed o he proagonisor main characer; heir paricipaion in he sory is imporan and heiracions move in he same direcion as hose o he proagonis); 4 = se-condary non-proagoniss (heir paricipaion in he sory is no very im-poran; heir presence is no essenial and is no closely relaed o eiherhe proagonis or he anagonis).

Socio-demographic aspecs of he characer. Te ollowing variables wereassessed wih regard o each characer: a) gender (1 = male, 2 = emale), b)age group (1 = child, beween 0 and 12 years o age; 2 = adolescen, be-ween ages 13 and 17; 3 = young adul, beween ages 18 and 30; 4 = adul,beween ages 31 and 64; 5 = elderly, over age 65); c) educaional level (0= canno be idenified; 1 = illierae, canno read or wrie; 2 = no ormaleducaion; 3 = primary school, 4 = middle and upper secondary school,

vocaional school; 5 = universiy); d) socio-economic level (0 = canno beidenified; 1 = low, working class or lower class, do no earn enough o sa-isy heir basic needs; 2 = middle class, characers who work or a living,mee heir needs and can afford a ew luxuries; 3 = upper class, characerswho need no work o mainain heir sandard o living or have a job haallows hem o enjoy many luxuries no available o he majoriy); e) occu-paion was coded according o a lis ha was esablished by he Cenro deInvesigaciones Sociolgicas(CIS, Spains Cenre or Sociological esearch)

or analyzing occupaions (17 differen occupaions are included, plus hecaegory 0 = canno be idenified; see able 5).

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A relevan eaure o his sudy is he evaluaion o he characers na-ionaliy.1As i ofenimes would be difficul o discern he birhplace o hecharacer, his crierion was weighed based on a group o atribues or cha-

racerisics ha had o be evaluaed joinly or separaely:(a) he birhpla-ce o he characer (provided i was explicily menioned in he program);(b) he birhplace o one o he characers parens, since he possibiliy obeing a second-generaion immigran was included when a leas one ohe parens had been born abroad; (c) biological characerisics or pheno-ypic rais (e.g. shape o he eyes, skin color , ype o hairsyle); (d) culu-ral characerisics (e.g. way o dressing, name o he characer, accen); and

(e) moivaion o be in anoher counry (working, sudying, on holiday).Te evaluaion o naionaliy invariably ook ino accoun he counry wheremos o he acion in he narraive akes place. Considering he previouslymenioned variables, he ollowing code was used o classiy he naionali-y o he characer: 0 = no clearly idenifiable; 1 = naional o he counrywhere mos o he acion akes place (naive, i he characer resides in his/her counry o birh); 2 = oreigner, he person is coming rom one coun-ry bu saying in anoher emporarily (e.g. due o sudies, vacaion or bu-

siness); and 3 = immigran, he characer has abandoned his/her counryor origin and arrives in anoher o reside here wih a specific work pro-jec. A characer also could be caegorized as a (second-generaion) immi-gran when a leas one o he parens was no born in he counry wheremos o he narraive akes place, and had esablished residence in anoheror he purpose o work .

Violen behavior by he characer. Using a dichoomous scale (0 = no,1 = yes), we coded he presence o differen ypes o behavior or modes oviolence based on Poter and Warrens classificaion (1998): a) perormingmajor physical atacks, b) perorming minor physical atacks, c) peror-ming acs ha cause propery damage, d) perorming acs o inimida-ion and, e) making hosile commens. An index o violen behavior wascreaed rom he sum o hese five variables.

Violen behavior owards he characer. Using a dichoomous scale(0 = no, 1 = yes) and Poter and Warrens classificaion (1998), we coded

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wheher he characer being analyzed suffered rom or was a vicim o heollowing ypes or modes o violence: a) major physical atacks, b) minorphysical atacks, c) acs causing propery damage, d) acs o inimidaion

and, e) hosile commens. A characer vicimizaion index was creaed romhe sum o hese variables.

Problemaic healh behavior shown by he characer. We coded (1 = yes,0 = no) wheher or no he characer: a) consumed alcoholic beverages, b)smoked obacco, c) ook prescripion drugs, d) consumed illegal drugs ande) exhibied a problemaic eaing disorder. An index o healh problems was

devised rom he sum o hese five variables.

Conversaion opics utered by he characer. Using a dichoomous sca-le (0 = no, 1 = yes), we coded wheher or no he characer conversed wihoher characers a some poin during he program abou he ollowing o-pics: love, violence, riendship, sex, money, social differences, work, heenvironmen, healh, educaion, amily, poliics, spors, racism and immi-

graion. A conversaional richness index was creaed or each characer byadding he fifeen aoremenioned variables.

Characters personality traits. Te personality traits o the character(riendly, open or extrovert, kind or good-hearted, disloyal, unair, aggres-sive, intelligent, hard-working, grateul, conflictive, racist and intolerant)

were pondered with a three-point scale (1 = it is not a trait o the charac-ter, 2 = it partially or moderately defines the personality o the charac-ter; 3 = it perectly defines the personality o the character). Moreover, anadditional code was used (value 0) or those cases in which the personali-ty o the character could not be coded because the character had a minorpresence in the show, making it difficult to objectively evaluate his/herpsychological profile. wo personality indices were created or each cha-racter: a positive personality traits index (riendly, open or extrovert, kindor good-hearted, intelligent, hard-working, grateul: = .85), and a nega-

tive personality traits index (disloyal, unair, aggressive, conflictive, racistand intolerant: = .80).

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CodingTe coding o hese 1,788 characers was underaken by eigh (8) analysswih raining in audiovisual communicaion and research mehods. Afer

he codificaion process was complee, a new analysis was conduced on 284randomly seleced characers o assess he reliabiliy o he coding process.Inercoder reliabiliy was compued using Krippendorff s alpha coefficien(Hayes & Krippendorff, 2007). Te naionaliy variable had a very ac-cepable value (Krippendorffs = .80), as did he variable concerning hecounry where he main par o he narraive akes place (Krippendorff s = .81).2 Te personaliy variables and hose involving conversaional

opics showed lower inercoder reliabiliy values; hence, hese las resulsshould be reaed cauiously. When he conversaional opics and persona-liy rais variables were excluded, he resuls or inercoder reliabiliy weresaisacory (Krippendorffs = .66).

Results

Hypothesis 1According o heInsiuo Nacional de Esadsica(Naional Bureau o Sais-ics) (INE, 2011), he populaion o oreigners regisered as living in Spainon January 1, 2011 was 5,730,667; ha is, 12.2% o he oal (47,150,819residens). Te resuls o his sudy show 89.8% o he characers on elevi-sion were naionals or naives, 4.2% were oreigners and 5.1% were immi-grans, while he naionaliy o 0.9% could no be deermined. Since he INEdoes no differeniae beween oreigners and immigrans, a new variable

was creaed in which he characers wihou a naionaliy were eliminaed,and a sole unified group o immigran-oreigners was generaed (9.3%).Based on hese figures, i was possible o iner here is an under-represena-ion o immigrans-oreigners in he sample o he characers analyzed (2[1,N= 1772] = 11.13,p< .001). Furhermore, saisically significan di-fferences emerged when he origin o he program was aken ino accoun(2[2,N= 1772] = 146.43,p< .001). Te percenage o immigran-ore-ign characers in he programs produced in Spain was subsanially redu-

ced (up o 4.4%), while heir presence was greaer in shows produced inoher counries (36.7%).

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Table 1Relationship Between Nationality of the Character and Originof the Program in Which the Character Appears (% column)

Naionaliy of he Characer oal %Origin of he Program

Domesic Origin (Spain) USA Oher Counry

National-Native 90.6 95.6+ 91.7+ 63.3-

Immigrant-Foreigner 9.4 4.4- 8.3- 36.7+

N 1772 563 1062 147

- Statistically significant lower value (adjusted standardized residuals analysis)+ Statistically significant higher value (adjusted standardized residuals analysis).

Hypothesis 2Hypohesis 2 assumes a relaionship beween he narraive role o he cha-racer and his/her naionaliy. Again, here were saisically significan di-fferences beween naional-naive and oreign-immigran characers in henarraive roles o he programs (2[3, N= 1772] = 15.20, p< .001). Tenaionals-naives and immigrans-oreigners were disribued similarly in

proagonis (11.9% versus 15%) and secondary leading roles (17.6% versus22.8%). However, he role o anagonis/villain was more requen amongimmigrans-oreigners (12%) han among naionals-naives (6%).Tus, Hy-pohesis 2 was suppored by he daa.

Table 2Relationship Between the Nationality of the Character and the

Narrative Role (% Column)


ype of Characer oal %Naionaliy of he Characer

Naional-Naive Immigran-Foreigner

Protagonist 12.2 11.9 15.0

Antagonist or villain 6.6 6.0- 12.0+

Secondary leading 18.1 17.6 22.8

Secondary non-leading 63.1 64.4+ 50.3-

N 1772 1148 190

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Hypothesis 3Hypohesis 3 assumes he exisence o significan differences beween na-ional-naive and immigran-oreign characers in he variables dealing wih

level o educaion, socio-economic saus and occupaion. As or he level oeducaion, here were saisically significan differences (2[5,N= 1772]= 28.99,p< .001); specifically, level o educaion could no be deerminedor a high percenage o he immigran-oreign characers (38.9%). Tis didno occur wih naional-naive characers (30.7%). Moreover, he percena-ge o illieracy was higher among he immigran-oreign characers (4.2%)han among naionals-naives (0.6%).

Table 3Relationship Between the Nationality of the Character and

Level of Education (% Column)


Level of Educaion oal %Naionaliy of he Characer


Unable to be identied 31.4 30.7- 38.9+

Illiterate 1.0 0.6- 4.2+

No studies 3.5 3.4 4.8

Primary 9.3 9.6 6.0

Secondary 19.8 24.7 19.8

University 26.3 31.1 26.3

N 1772 1605 167

A saisically significan associaion also was noed beween he naio-naliy o he characer and his/her socio-economic saus (2[3,N= 1772]

= 10.63, p< .014). Immigrans-oreigners appeared more requenly in alower socio-economic saus (19.2%) han did naionals-naives (10.8%).

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Finally, a saisically significan associaion was observed wih res-pec o occupaion (2[17,N= 1772] = 92.24,p< .001).Immigran-ore-ign characers had a higher probabiliy o carrying ou criminal aciviies(21% as opposed o 5.7% o he naionals-naives), perorming lower-skilledjobs (10.2% versus 4.7%), and working a anoher proession no specifiedin he lis (7.8% versus 4%). Furhermore, he naional-naive characerswere more likely o be sudens (9.4% versus 3% o he immigrans-ore-

igners). Based on hese resuls, Hypohesis 3 was confirmed by he daa(see able 5).


Socio-Economic Status (% Column)


Socio-economic Saus oal %

Naionaliy of he Characer


Could not be identied 1.2 1.3 0.6

Low 11.6 10.8- 19.2+

Medium 73.0 73.6 67.1

High 14.2 14.3 13.2

N 1772 1605 167

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Occupation or Main Activity (% Column)


Occupaion or Main Aciviy oal %Naionaliy of he Characer

Naional-Naive Immigran-Foreign

Could not be identied 16.5 17.4+ 8.4-

Does not have a stable occupation 0.7 0.6 1.8

Director or high-level professional 5.6 5.9 3.6

Technician or medium-level professional 13.1 13.0 13.8

Small businessperson 2.6 2.6 2.4

Oce and services clerk 2.6 2.7 1.2

Skilled worker 3.6 3.6 3.6

Non-skilled worker 5.2 4.7- 10.2+

Farmer, stockbreeder/rancher, sherman(primary secor)

0.7 0.7 0.6

Member of a religious order 1.6 1.8 0.0

Police and/or military person 20.7 20.9 19.2

Retired and/or pensioner 1.3 1.4 0.6

Unemployed 1.3 1.4 0.0

Student 8.8 9.4+ 3.0-

Unpaid domestic 1.6 1.7 0.0

Sports, artist or show-business person 2.4 2.3 3.0

Other occupation (not in the list) 4.3 4.0- 7.8+

Characters job involves criminal activities 7.2 5.7- 21.0+

N 1772 1605 167

Hypothesis 4Hypohesis 4 assumes here are saisically significan differences beweennaionals-naives and immigrans-oreigners in he variables o violen be-havior, vicimizaion, healh problems, conversaional richness, and perso-naliy rais. A mulivariae analysis o variance (MANOVA) was perormedo es his hypohesis, wih he independen variable being he naionali-y o he characer (naional-naive vs.immigran-oreigner). Te indicescreaed concerning violen behavior, vicimizaion, healh problems, con-

versaional richness, and he wo personaliy rai acors (posiive and ne-gaive eaures) were used as dependen variables.

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Te MANOVA showed here were significan differences a a muli-variae level (Wilkss Lambda = .97, Fmulivariae[6, 1374] = 5.10,p< .001, p2= .022). When he differences beween naionals-naives and immigrans-

oreigners were analyzed a he univariae level, saisically significan di-fferences were noed regarding he index o violen behavior (F[1, 1379]= 17.91,p< .001, p2= .013) and in he vicimizaion index (F[1, 1379] =5.58,p< .018, p2= .004),he one reerring o healh problems (F[1, 1379]= 8.86,p< .003, p2= .006), conversaional richness (F[1, 1379] = 3.63,p< .057, p2= .003), and in he indicaor o negaive personaliy rais (F[1, 1379] = 19.90, p< .001,

p2= .014). No univariae saisically signifi-

can differences appeared in he index o posiive personaliy rais (F[1,1379] = 2.31,p< .129, p2= .002). In shor, immigran-oreign characersscored higher han naional-naive ones in he indices o violen behavior,vicimizaion, healh problems and negaive personaliy rais (see able 6).

Table 6Differences Between National-Native Characters and Immigrants-

Foreigners Regarding Violent Behavior, Victimization, Health

Problems, Conversational Richness and Personality Traits(Multivariate Analysis of Variance, Manova)

Variables (indices)

Naionaliy

Naional-NaiveImmigran-Foreigner

F df p p2

Violence 0.69 1.12 17.91 1, 1379 .000 .013

[heoreical range: 0-5] (1.14) (1.25)

Vicimizaion 0.60 0.82 5.58 1, 1379 .018 .004

[heoreical range: 0-5] (1.02) (1.04)Healh problems 0.18 0.30 8.86 1, 1379 .003 .006

[heoreical range: 0-5] (0.44) (0.53)

Conversaional richness 3.26 3.64 3.63 1, 1379 .057 .003

[heoreical range: 0-15] (2.26) (2.34)

Posiive personaliy rais 2.04 1.97 2.31 1, 1379 .129 .002

[heoreical range: 1-3] (0.54) (0.52)

Negaive personaliy rais 1.21 1.38 19.90 1, 1379 .000 .014

[heoreical range: 1-3] (0.41) (0.53)

N 1239 142

Note. the mean and the standard deviation (in parenthesis) are shown for each variable.

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As or healh problems, he only variable or which here were sais-ically significan differences was alcohol consumpion (2[1,N= 1772] =18.62,p< .001). I was much more requen among immigran-oreign cha-

racers (19.8%) han among naionals-naives (9.2%). Wih regard o spe-cific differences in conversaional opics associaed wih naionaliy, i wasobserved ha immigran-oreigners, compared o naional-naive characers,alked more requenly abou work (79.6% versus 62.5%; 2[1,N= 1772]= 19.32,p< .001), money (37.7% versus 29.6%; 2[1,N= 1772] = 4.72,p< .033), poliics (15.6% versus 9.4%; 2[1,N= 1772] = 6.38, p< .012),social difference (10.8% versus 6%; 2[1,N= 1772] = 5.78,p< .016), im-

migraion (9% versus 2.8%;

2

[1,N= 1772] = 17.65,p< .001), and spors(9.6% versus 5.7%; 2[1,N= 1772] = 3.91,p< .048). Conversely, alhoughhey exhibied more healh problems han he naional-naive characers,immigran-oreigners alked less han hey did abou healh (23.4% versus29.4%; 2[1,N= 1772] = 3.17,p< .077). On he subjec o specific differen-ces in personaliy, immigran-oreign characers scored higher han naio-nals-naives wih respec o he ollowing rais: aggressiveness ((158.63)= -3.29,p< .001), conflicive ((152.75) = -3.99,p< .000), and disloyal or

reacherous ((156.89) = -1.85,p< .066). A he same ime, naional-nai-ve characers were more riendly ((1433) = 1.79,p< .072) and kind orgood-heared ((1353) = 2.04,p< .016) han immigrans-oreigners. As awhole, he resuls obained confirm Hypohesis 4.

ConclusionsTe resuls o his conen analysis sudy shed ligh on he biased or sereo-

ypical consrucion o immigran-oreigner characers in elevision ficionbroadcas during prime ime by he main naional channels in Spain. Mo-reover, he esablished hypoheses are srongly suppored by he daa. Un-der-represenaion o immigran-oreign characers is observed in ficionalprograms broadcas on prime-ime Spanish elevision, since only 9.3% ohe characers porrayed in hese programs are immigrans-oreigners, inconras o he real lie siuaion where 12.2% o he Spanish populaion iscomprised o immigrans-oreigners Spain (INE, 2011). Tis under-repre-

senaion is even greaer in programs produced in Spain, where only 4.4%o he characers are immigrans-oreigners. Tis is almos eigh percena-

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ge poins less han he acual presence o immigrans in Spain. In addiiono his low presence or lack o diversiy, he demographic and psychoso-cial variables showed clear differences beween he represenaion o im-

migran-oreign characers and naional-naive ones, depending on he rolehey played in he shows.

I was observed ha immigran-oreign characers were more likelyo be case in anagonis or villain roles compared o naional-naive cha-racers. Moreover, he educaional level o immigran-oreign characers,as opposed o naional-naive ones, is a eaure less emphasized or sressed

when building he personaliy o he ficional characer. Furhermore, im-migrans-oreigners, as opposed o naionals-naives, are depiced wih alower level o educaion, a lower socio-economic saus, occupaions hado no require specific skills, or appear perorming criminal aciviies, beha-ving more violenly and suffering more acs o violence (meaning heir ac-ions ake place in more conflicive environmens); hey also exhibi morehealh problems (paricularly associaed wih alcohol consumpion), pari-cipae in conversaions involving insrumenal opics (work, money, social

differences, poliics, and immigraion), and are defined wih more negaivepersonaliy rais (hey are more aggressive, conflicive and disloyal or rea-cherous han naional-naive characers). Te resuls obained are conver-gen wih previous sudies done in he Unied Saes o America regardingehnic minoriies in elevision ficion (Masro & Greenberg, 2000; Masro& Behm-Morawiz, 2005). Tey also are in line wih he sudy carried ouby Igarua e al. (2012), based on a sample o 1,345 characers in ficional

programs broadcas on Spanish prime-ime elevision in 2010.

Tese resuls are imporan because he low presence o immigran-oreign characers (especially in Spanish producions); ha is, he lack odiversiy in elevision ficion, can condiion heir visibiliyor social vialiyand, consequenly, heir saus or perceived social srengh; urhermore,i hinders he esablishmen o vicariousor parasocial conacbeween henaive populaion and individuals o oher naional origins who have a no-

able presence in Spanish sociey (Harwood & Anderson, 2002; Oriz &Harwood, 2007). Furhermore, he sereoypical and negaive image o im-

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migrans-oreigners in he programs analyzed may lead o a reinorcemenor assimilaion o prejudicial atiudes owards immigrans. Tis is an as-pec ha should be esed in urher sudies.

Sill, even hough he media ofen have been par o he problem regar-ding he origin and mainenance o prejudice, hey also could become paro he soluion by conribuing o a change in atiudes and individual andcollecive belies, by simulaing reflecion and modeling innovaive socialnorms. As menioned, empirical evidence exiss o he effec ha vicariousconac provided hrough audiovisual consumpion may avor he esablis-hmen o more harmonious relaionships among ciizens o differen naio-nal and ehnic origin (Mller, 2009; Park, 2012). Te pracical implicaionsdeduced rom his approach are eviden: giving publiciy (e.g. hroughficional narraives such as a film or a elevision series) o posiive inerac-ion beween members o he in-group (in our case, naives or naionals)and members o a sigmaized ou-group (such as immigrans-oreigners)would help o reduce he percepion o inergroup hrea and improve ati-udes owards migraion. Such narraives could show how immigrans and

naives inerac posiively, develop close relaionships (as riends or couples),or resolve inerpersonal conflics emanaing precisely rom prejudice or se-reoypes. Hence, a change in his radiion o building such negaive cha-racers and relaionships should be simulaed in he producion o ficionalseries, as has been underaken in he field o journalism regarding coverageo immigraion in he news. In addiion, i is imporan o raise awarenessamong hose who are responsible or syllabuses and plans a he undergra-duae and graduae levels in communicaion sudies as o he need or in-

cluding educaion on diversiy, mediaed inergroup conac and prejudice.

AcknowledgementsWe wish o hank he anonymous reviewers or heir houghul sugges-ions during he revision process.

Notes1We are well aware that two types o error can occur when coding acharacters nationality in this sort o content analysis: alse positives, when

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a character is considered an immigrant, but is not; and alse negatives,when a character is considered a national or native, but is actually an im-migrant or oreigner. Tereore, the ollowing precautions were taken prior

to coding. First, the analyst-coders were trained or three weeks, duringwhich time they had an opportunity to work with the codebook and toanalyze both Spanish and oreign programs. Secondly, the decision abouta characters nationality was based undamentally on the characters pla-ce o birth and the place where the action o the narrative was set (e.g. ithe plot took place in Spain and the character was Spanish, the character

was coded as a national; i the action was set in Mexico and the character

was Mexican, the character was also coded as a national o that country.In contrast, i the action was set in the United States and the characterwas defined as Spanish, the character was not classified as a national, butas an immigrant). When the evidence was not so clear, other criteria (vi-sual, cultural, etc.) were used, but always taking into account the contexto the program and the place where the action was set. In any case, we

believe new studies (replications in other countries, outside the contexto the United States) and perhaps new procedures are needed to deter-

mine the nationality o fictional characters more precisely. Te origin othe program could affect the coding o this variable (as one reviewer othe manuscript suggested). Although, the number o appearances a cha-racter has in the program could be more influential in the coding o na-tionality than the country where the program was produced, since thelevel o inormation we have about characters who appear more spora-dically is going to be less than the inormation on the characters who ap-pear more ofen.

2Inercoder reliabiliy also was calculaed in he naionaliy variableor Spanish programs (N= 86) and oreign ones (N= 198). In boh cases,i was shown o be saisacory, alhough he reliabiliy o his variable wasslighly lower or he Spanish programs (Krippendorffs = .66) compa-red o he non-Spanish ones (Krippendorffs =.80).

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