01 Evolución Didáctica de Las Lenguas Extranjeras. Tendencias Actuales en La Didáctica Del...

TEMA 1

EVOLUCIÓN DIDÁCTICA DE LAS LENGUAS

EXTRANJERAS. TENDENCIAS ACTUALES EN LA

DIDÁCTICA DEL INGLÉS COMO LENGUA

EXTRANJERA. LOS ENFOQUES COMUNICATIVOS.

MÓNICA CRESPO RAMÍREZ

Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXIC/ Rumbau. 1 -3°. 17a .46001 Valencia Tf. 963 51 9522 -963290 849. Fax. 963 94 33 05

http:l/www.cienciasdelhombre21.com E-Mail: [email protected]

1. Evolución de la didáctica de las lenguas. Tendencias actuales de la didáctica del inglés lengua extranjera. Los enfoques comunicativos.

0. INTRODUCTION

1. EARLY STAGES IN LANGUAGE TEACHING: CLASSICAL

LANGUAGES

2. THE TEACHING OF MODERN LANGUAGES

2.1. FIRST APPROACHES: Grammar-translation method

Reform movement

Direct Method

2.2. 20th CENTURY INNOVATIONS: Berlitz School

Basic English

The Structural approach

TGG

2.3. PRESENT-DAY TRENDS: Functional-notional Grammar

Communicative Approach

Post-Communicative Approaches

- NLP- Task-Based Learning - The Lexical Approach

3. CONCLUSION



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0. INTRODUCTION

Humans have always shown an urgent desire and need of communicating with

others. If these “others” speak a different language, the need of learning this new

language arises. This need was already obvious for members of ancient civilizations,

where translators and language teachers helped them to communicate with

foreigners. In today’s world this need is even more important. Most international

business are carried our in English, international travel is fairly common, and new

technologic advances, such as the internet, give us a great possibility to get in touch

with people from other cultures. In order to do so, we need to learn foreign

languages, mostly English, which is the predominant language in international

communication.

As language teachers, our aim will be making language a tool that our students

can use to communicate with other people. This vision of language as a tool is fairly

new, and it has given rise to new, communicative models of language teaching. But

these are not the only methods. Throughout history, many different methods of

language teaching and learning have been in use. We must know their basic

characteristics, not only in order to be aware of the development of our profession,

but also to be able to use some of their techniques if our students can benefit from

them. This unit, then, will be focused on the revision of the different approaches

people have used to teach and learn foreign languages through history.



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1. EARLY STAGES IN LANGUAGE TEACHING: CLASSICAL

LANGUAGES

In this point we will make a quick historical review of the situation of language

teaching and learning in old times.

We know that Egyptians, Babylonians and Assyrians had bilingual

representatives to help them with diplomacy and foreign trade. But, unfortunately, we

don’t know about their training.

Romans had Greek teacher-slaves who taught them Greek by means of

conversation, grammar, reading and writing. Affluent Romans were very interested in

learning Greek, because the Greek culture was considered to be superior to that of

Rome.

The early Christian missionaries used a similar method to learn the languages of

the peoples they wanted to convert: a native speaker taught them, usually by

conversation.

During the Middle Ages, the only languages considered worth learning were Latin,

Greek and Hebrew, and they were taught in monastic schools. Among these, we may

mention Latin, because it was the language of education, government and the

Church.

The Renaissance brought a revival in the interest in knowing classical languages.

Queen Elizabeth I could speak Latin, Greek, Hebrew and Aramaic. Harvard

University (founded in 1636) set up as an entry standard to understand any classical

language. In this epoch, vernacular languages started to be taken into account, and,

in the 18th C., Harvard established the first Chair of Modern Languages: French.



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2. THE TEACHING OF MODERN LANGUAGES

2.1. FIRST APPROACHES

Grammar-translation method

This method began to be used in Prussia at the end of the 18th c. Its main feature

was the use of sentences exemplificatory of grammar rules, instead of texts. The aim

of this method was to enable students to read foreign literature in its original

language. It was based in the classical way of teaching Latin.

The main characteristics of this method are:

(1) The terms and explanations of Latin grammar were applied to modern

European languages.

(2) The role played by words in the sentences was carefully analysed.

(3) The T/L process was based on written skills, and conversation was not taught.

(4) Students had to learn by heart lots of grammar lists (with their exceptions) and

vocabulary lists.

(5) Accuracy was a requisite.

(6) Compositions had a great importance, and they were used to test students'

proficiency.

The main criticisms received by this method are:

(1) Language is not only rational, but also intuitive.

(2) Spoken language and interaction were neglected.

(3) This method is very appropriate for case-based languages, such as Latin, but

unsuitable for most European modern languages.



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(4) The only register taught is Literature, which is unsuitable for communication.

However, it has some positive aspects: it presents a throughout knowledge of

grammar; it gives importance to meaning in the learning process and translation can

be useful in high levels when learning L2.

The best-known textbook in this method is Ch. Fick, Practical English Course

(1793). Each lesson presents a new grammar rule, a vocabulary list and practical

examples for students to translate.

The Reform Movement

This movement began with the pamphlet Language Teaching Must Start Afresh

by W. Viëtor(1850-1918) in 1882. This phonetician, together with Sweet(1845-1912)

(The Practical Study of Language), Jespersen (How to Teach a FL) or Passy, and

supported by the foundation of the International Phonetic Association, established

the principles of the reform: primacy of speech and oral methodology; written

homework was abolished and substituted by learning rhymes and songs by heart; the

method was based on spoken language. Viëtor proposed accurate descriptions of

speech based on phonetics; pronunciation should be corrected and grammar should

not be explained in class (he proposed an inductive method).

This was a text-based approach which leaned on Psychology and its notion of

association. This being so, we should provide students with texts in which linguistic

elements were correctly assembled to make necessary associations.



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In this oral method the teacher spoke the L2, using the L1 only for glossing new

words. They were non-native teachers.

The main criticism received by this method was the high emphasis laid on

phonetics, which was considered an extra burden.

The Direct Method

This method is based on the belief that learning how to speak a FL is not a

rational but an intuitive process for which humans have a natural capacity that can be

awakened provided that the proper conditions exist: someone to talk to, something to

talk about and a desire to be understood.

The main representatives of this method are:

(1) Montaigne: He was the precursor of the method; he was taught Latin in a

direct way: the teacher could only talk Latin to him, as could the rest of the

family when addressing the boy.

(2) Blackie: He devised 4 maxims to be followed by language teachers: (1) Teach

the spoken language first. (2) Relate new words to their referent. (3) Practise.

(4) Gain and keep the students’ interest.

(3) L. Sauveur (1826-1907), An Introduction to the Teaching of Living Languages

Without Grammar or Dictionaries (1874) (Teacher’s manual), recommended

intensive oral interaction and the question/answer technique.

(4) Gavin: L2 should be learnt as L1.

The general principles of this method are:

(1) Language should be learnt through speech.



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(2) Language should be used as much as possible.

(3) Grammar rules don’t have to be learnt by heart, but ‘picked up’ by practise of

the language.

(4) L1 has to be totally avoided.

The main criticisms are:

(1) It takes too much time.

(2) It completely excludes translation and explanation of grammar rules, which

have proved useful for teaching adults.

(3) Vocabulary learning is slow and inefficient.

2.2. 20TH CENTURY INNOVATIONS

Berlitz School

M. Berlitz founded a school in Rhode Island in 1878. It is not really a new

method, but an application of the Direct Method, and it has been quite successful. It’s

slogan is ‘The eye is an enemy to the ear’, which is true in the case of English.

The main characteristics of this school are:

(1) No translation.

(2) No use of L1.

(3) Oral work, based on question/answer technique.

(4) Native, trained teachers.

(5) No grammar explanation till late in the course.



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(6) Only everyday vocabulary and structures are taught.

Basic English

This method was devised by Richard & Ogden in 1928, who believed that each

language has a basic grammar and vocabulary, which have to be taught first. These

authors reduced language to only 850 words, classified in 3 groups: qualities (adj),

things (N) and operators (V, prep, conj…). If they wanted to express any meaning not

covered by these words, paraphrase was used.

The main problems of this method are:

(1) Each word has to carry a lot of meanings.

(2) It doesn’t teach real English: paraphrases are needed to express words which

exist in the language (bush=small tree), and some very usual terms, (good-

bye, thank-you) can not be expressed.

(3) Teachers also have to learn basic English before they are able to teach it.

But this model also has a practical application: basic grammar and the frequency

criterion are still important when designing a language course.

The Structural Approach

This approach to language teaching is based on American Structuralism

(Bloomfield, Fries, Sapir) (See topic 12). Structuralists believe that 2 steps have to be

followed when designing a language course: analysing the target language by means

of a descriptive approach and providing appropriate materials for that particular

language. Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI

C/ Rumbau. 1 -3°. 17a .46001 Valencia Tf. 963 51 9522 -963290 849. Fax. 963 94 33 05http:l/www.cienciasdelhombre21.com E-Mail: [email protected]

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The structural theory of language learning is based on behaviourism(Skinner).

From this point of view, learning a language is just a process of learning correct

habits by means of SR (r). In order for students to acquire these habits, they

present a hierarchical syllabus, and a slot and filler language explanation. The typical

exercises are substitution tables and drills, which work through repetition and aim to

the creation of correct linguistic habits. Errors had to be avoided, because they led to

incorrect habits. Technological advances, such as recordings and radio broadcasts

were widely used.

The most successful application of the Structural Approach has been the ASTP

(Army Specialized Training programme, 1942 ). It was devised to teach European

languages to American soldiers during WWII. The programme had the following

characteristics: intensive learning / small groups of selected, highly intelligent

students with a previous linguistic knowledge/ native teachers for conversations and

drilling, and trained teachers for grammar / use of new technologies. But the most

important cause of the success of the method seems to have been the high

motivation of the students.

The same method failed when, after the war, it was used in schools. The reasons

are: there where only a few hours per week, too many students in each classroom

and the high motivation was gone.

The main criticisms received by the Structural Approach to language teaching

are:

(1) Language is communication, and not a mere repetition of structures.

(2) It doesn’t care for the creative use of the language.

(3) Structural exercises, out of context, are boring and demotivating.



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TGG (Transformational Generative Grammar )

TGG appeared as a reaction against structural grammar, because it didn’t cater

for creativity and free use of the language. (See topic 12)

TGG appeared with Chomsky’s Syntactic Structures (1957), where the main

concepts of this grammar were explained: the difference between deep and surface

structures, competence and performance, and the transformational rules used to

generate sentences. The aims of TGG was to create a grammar which could predict

the linguistic features of a language, and then look for linguistic universals.

Chomsky also talked about the LAD (Language Acquisition Device), which allows

us to learn a language by means of making hypothesis. He described this device in

relation to children’s language learning, but considered that it could also apply to L2

learning. Apart from this, Chomsky was sceptical about the application of TGG to

language teaching, because it is a theory of competence, and in language teaching

we must focus on performance.

The application of TGG to language teaching is called “cognitive approach”. The

most important changes brought about by this method are:

(1) Priority must be given to free expression and creativity.

(2) Mistakes are to be considered normal, and prove that students are making

hypothesis about L2.

(3) Grammatical explanation and ungrammatical examples can also be valuable.

(4) Students are not mere ‘recipients’ of knowledge, but active elements who can

and should express themselves actively and creatively.



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In the field of Cognitivism we find one of the most influential men in the area of

language learning over the last twenty years: Steve Krashen. He thinks that learning

an L2 is like babies learning an L1, and has deepened the studies on the LAD.

However, the thinks that grammar rules are processed in a different way and that

they are learned in a certain order. One of his key concepts is the affective filter.

(See topic 2 ). Krashen believes that many things, such as motivation of students can

act as filters that come between the learner and the “comprehensible input” (reading

and listening) necessary for language acquisition. He also made an important

differentiation between acquisition (unconscious mechanism of internalising lang that

we pick up in communicative situations) and learning (comes from processing rules

and grammar information).

Many criticisms arise against these theories especially abstract terminology and

superficial application of the theory. Despite it, TGG has made great contributions to

language teaching such as a complete and systematic conception of language and

languages and the defence of a solid linguistic basis of L1 in order to progress in L2.

2.3 PRESENT-DAY TRENDS

One of the most important events in the field of T/L a L2 has been the evolution of

TEFL. It appeared as an autonomous profession in the 50’s. Soon later, a clear

distinction was made between TEFL and TESL. students had different expectations

and objectives, so the methods and objectives set up by teachers should also be

different.

In the 70’s, the emergence of applied linguistics gave rise to ESP. The most

important authors in this field are Firth, Halliday, Widdowson.



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Functional-notional grammar.

This kind of grammar is based on two key concepts: functions and notions.

Functions represent the intentions of the speaker (describe, advise, warn…), so that

they are concerned with the social behaviour. Notions are the categories in which we

divide reality: time, frequency, gender, number…

This kind of grammar appeared in the 1970’s, due to the Council of Europe’s

efforts to establish an equivalence in the syllabuses for learning different languages.

Functions and notions represent universal categories of human thinking, and they do

not vary among languages. So that, it was decided that they should be the base of

the new syllabus.

Functional-notional grammar focuses in language in use: students have to learn

how to use the language is different situations (travel, hospital, restaurant…) rather

than the general structure of the languages. This method was put into practice in the

Threshold Level and Waystage in the 1970’s. Recently the Common European

Framework of Reference for Languages has been published (2002).

A very important factor in this approach was Hymes' new notion of competence.

It was no longer grammatical competence, but communicative competence: knowing

what to talk about, with whom, when, where and in what manner. This concept was

later reviewed by Canale & Swain, and is the basis of the communicative approach.

Communicative approach

It is enclosed in a frame called Textual linguistics, which is a heterogeneous

group of disciplines dealing with the text (Europe) or the discourse (USA). TL is

mainly articulated through Pragmatics, which analyses everything related to Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI

C/ Rumbau. 1 -3°. 17a .46001 Valencia Tf. 963 51 9522 -963290 849. Fax. 963 94 33 05http:l/www.cienciasdelhombre21.com E-Mail: [email protected]

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communication and language; it talks about real speakers or listeners and introduces

the concept of context. On the other hand, we move from a linguistic competence to

a communicative competence (Canale & Swain). (See topic 4). So, if language is text

or discourse, its most important characteristics will be adequacy and textual

conditions (cohesion, coherence) – See topic 29.

The important thing for the communicative approach to learn a L2 is that the

student knows the communicative functions and dominates the four skills. Student is

an active element and we must take advantage of his competence in L1 and apply it

to L2. Key concepts for the Communicative Approach are motivation and interaction.

Widdowson set up the theoretical basis for the communicative approach. Its main

characteristics are:

(1) The heart of the language lesson is the communicative activity in itself, not

the grammar explanation.

(2) The syllabus has to be built around a carefully grades selection of

communicative acts which the students will need to perform their purposes.

(3) Language must be used for communicative purposes. Interaction is not

only necessary, but also fundamental.

(4) All skills should receive the same attention.

(5) If possible, authentic materials should be used. They put students in

contact with the real use of the language and are highly motivating.

(6) The more L2 is used, the better.

According to K. Morrow, a communicative activity has to have 3 characteristics:

information gap, authentic materials, feedback.



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Within this approach, and regarding the use of authentic materials and the

motivation of the ss, we must mention the use of the new technologies, as web

pages or e-mail.

Neuro-linguistic programme (NLP)

The newest trend in teaching is called the Neuro-linguistic Programme and it is

based in the theories by Bandler and Grinder (The Structure of Magic). They

explained that by understanding the inner language of the brain anyone can learn to

achieve the excellent result of the most experts communicators, teachers and

therapists. NLP offers three important benefits:

1. A new model of how people learn (brain as a computers' user manual)

2. It delivers teachers new ways to get the students into the relaxed state

required to get knowledge.

3. It provides a model of what teaching is, how effective teachers create a sense

of "rapport" with students.

According to NLP when students learn they are using the five senses. These

sensory systems are called Representational System in NLP, and each student has

his favourite one and learns through it. Effective teachers learn how to speak in each

of the representational systems. For example, we can reach visual learners through

words written on the board, diagrams... auditory learners through discussions, etc.

NLP proves that students memorise information better if they are in a relaxed

state. The key ways to do this are:



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(1) Anchoring (as if you were listening to a song which reminds you of your

youth). You can, for example, play the same tune at the beginning of the

classes.

(2) Rapport (a kind of understanding among friends). The Teacher has to

achieve it, so that students will feel at ease in class and will, therefore,

learn better.

(3) Leading: Inviting students to follow suggestions, rather than ordering them

to do things.

Task-Based Learning

Students are given a task to perform and once finished the teacher comments

on the language used . (Willis 1999, Harmer 2001:86)

The Lexical Approach

It’s based on the principle that “ language consists not of traditional grammar and

vocabulary but of multi-word prefabricated chunks” (Lewis 1977:3)



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3. CONCLUSION

Both the LOGSE and LOCE foster the communicative approach, together with

the functional-notional grammar, which is in fact the organizational base of most

textbooks. But this doesn’t mean that we can’t use other methods. Quite differently;

as English teachers, we must be able to identify different approaches to language

teaching, and be able to use those which will benefit our students in any particular

stage. In order to select which method to use, we must take into account our

students, their age and level, and the goals and objectives of the two stages we are

dealing with: ESO and Bachillerato. We must also remember that our objective is not

merely to teach a language, but to teach how to use the language for communication

purposes. Language, therefore, will be considered as a tool, not as an end in itself.



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BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Bandler, R. & Grinder, J. 1975. The Structure of Magic. Meta Publication

Canale & Swain. 1980. Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching

and Testing . Toronto : Ontario Ministry of Education.

Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. MIT Press.

Cuenca, 1992, Teories grammaticals i ensenyament de llengües, Tàndem.

Ellis, R. 1994. The Study of Second Language Acquisition. OUP.

Finocchiaro, 1969. Teaching English as a Second Language, Longman.

Harmer, Jeremy.2001. The Practice of English Language Teaching . Longman.

Howatt, 1985 A History of English Language Teaching, OUP.

Hutchinson T., and Waters . 1985 . English for Specific Purposes. CUP

Krashen,.S .1981. Second Language Acquisition and Learning. Pergamon PressRoulet, 1975 Linguistic Theory, Linguistic Description and Language Teaching, Longman.Lewis, Michael, 1993. The Language Approach. Language Teaching Publications.

Lewis, Michael, 1997. Implementing the Lexical Approach. Language Teaching Publications

Willis, Jane .1999. A Framework for Task-Based Learning. Longman.

-You can find extensive bibliography and several applications of NLP in, http://langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/tlt/97/feb

-Common European Framework of Reference for Languages http://www.coe.int/T/E/Cultural%5FCo%2Doperation/education/Languages/

Language_Policy/Common_Framework_of_Reference/default.asp#TopOfPage



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http://www.coe.int/T/E/Cultural_Co-operation/education/Languages/Language_Policy/Common_Framework_of_Reference/default.asp#TopOfPage

http://www.coe.int/T/E/Cultural_Co-operation/education/Languages/Language_Policy/Common_Framework_of_Reference/default.asp#TopOfPage

http://langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/tlt/97/feb

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